
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" dir="ltr" class="client-nojs">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8"/>
<title>Western philosophy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</title>
<script>document.documentElement.className = document.documentElement.className.replace( /(^|\s)client-nojs(\s|$)/, "$1client-js$2" );</script>
<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Western_philosophy","wgTitle":"Western philosophy","wgCurRevisionId":722495133,"wgRevisionId":722495133,"wgArticleId":13704154,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Western culture","Western philosophy"],"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgMonthNamesShort":["","Jan","Feb","Mar","Apr","May","Jun","Jul","Aug","Sep","Oct","Nov","Dec"],"wgRelevantPageName":"Western_philosophy","wgRelevantArticleId":13704154,"wgRequestId":"V39skgpAMEkAAKNMmXsAAABT","wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgWikiEditorEnabledModules":{"toolbar":true,"dialogs":true,"preview":false,"publish":false},"wgBetaFeaturesFeatures":[],"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","usePageImages":true,"usePageDescriptions":true},"wgPreferredVariant":"en","wgRelatedArticles":null,"wgRelatedArticlesUseCirrusSearch":true,"wgRelatedArticlesOnlyUseCirrusSearch":false,"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1,"quality":2,"pristine":3}}},"wgStableRevisionId":null,"wgCategoryTreePageCategoryOptions":"{\"mode\":0,\"hideprefix\":20,\"showcount\":true,\"namespaces\":false}","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCentralNoticeCategoriesUsingLegacy":["Fundraising","fundraising"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q842333","wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgVisualEditorToolbarScrollOffset":0});mw.loader.implement("user.options",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.options.set({"variant":"en"});});mw.loader.implement("user.tokens",function ( $, jQuery, require, module ) {
mw.user.tokens.set({"editToken":"+\\","patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"});/*@nomin*/;

});mw.loader.load(["mediawiki.page.startup","mediawiki.legacy.wikibits","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.head","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.uls.init","ext.uls.interface","ext.quicksurveys.init","mw.MediaWikiPlayer.loader","mw.PopUpMediaTransform","ext.centralNotice.bannerController","skins.vector.js"]);});</script>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=ext.gadget.DRN-wizard%2CReferenceTooltips%2Ccharinsert%2Cfeatured-articles-links%2CrefToolbar%2Cswitcher%2Cteahouse%7Cext.tmh.thumbnail.styles%7Cext.uls.nojs%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cmediawiki.legacy.commonPrint%2Cshared%7Cmediawiki.raggett%2CsectionAnchor%7Cmediawiki.skinning.interface%7Cskins.vector.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector"/>
<meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=site.styles&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector"/>
<script async="" src="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=startup&amp;only=scripts&amp;skin=vector"></script>
<meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.28.0-wmf.9"/>
<meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"/>
<link rel="alternate" href="android-app://org.wikipedia/http/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy"/>
<link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit"/>
<link rel="edit" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit"/>
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"/>
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"/>
<link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="Wikipedia (en)"/>
<link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"/>
<link rel="copyright" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/"/>
<link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy"/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" />
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Western_philosophy rootpage-Western_philosophy skin-vector action-view">
		<div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main">
			<a id="top"></a>

							<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
						<div class="mw-indicators">
</div>
			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Western philosophy</h1>
									<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
									<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
								<div id="contentSub"></div>
												<div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump">
					Jump to:					<a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, 					<a href="#p-search">search</a>
				</div>
				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks hlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<th class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Western philosophy">History of<br />
Western philosophy</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_cropped.png" class="image" title="Part of &quot;School of Athens&quot; by Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio, 1483-1520)"><img alt="Part of &quot;School of Athens&quot; by Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio, 1483-1520)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png/220px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png" width="220" height="122" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png/330px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sanzio_01_cropped.png/440px-Sanzio_01_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="1326" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em"><strong class="selflink">Western philosophy</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;">
<dl>
<dd><i>By era</i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;;padding-bottom:0.8em;">
<dl>
<dd><i>By century</i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/16th-century_philosophy" title="16th-century philosophy">16th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">18th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" title="20th-century philosophy">20th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">21st</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">See also</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;">
<dl>
<dd><i><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_philosophy" title="Sikh philosophy">Sikh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.2em;;padding-bottom:0.8em;">
<dl>
<dd><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></i></dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_literature#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian literature">Babylonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.15em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Western_philosophy" title="Template:History of Western philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Western_philosophy" title="Template talk:History of Western philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Western philosophy</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> thought and work of the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, beginning with Hellenic (i.e. Greek) philosophy, and eventually covering a large area of the globe. The word <i>philosophy</i> itself originated from the Hellenic: <i>philosophia</i> (φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom" (φιλεῖν <i>philein</i>, "to love" and σοφία <i><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">sophia</a></i>, "wisdom").</p>
<p>The scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of (at least some of) the ancient <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a>, were <i>all</i> intellectual endeavors. This included the problems of philosophy as they are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Pure_mathematics" title="Pure mathematics">pure mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, for example, wrote on all of these topics.)</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Western_philosophical_subdisciplines"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Western philosophical subdisciplines</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Philosophy_contrasted_with_other_disciplines"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy contrasted with other disciplines</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Natural_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Natural science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Theology_and_religious_studies"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Theology and religious studies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mathematics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Western_philosophical_subdisciplines">Western philosophical subdisciplines</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Western philosophical subdisciplines">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">a series</a> on</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Philbar_3.png" class="image" title="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes"><img alt="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png" width="220" height="151" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="151" /></a>
<div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;white-space:nowrap;border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers" title="Category:Philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aestheticians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_and_political_philosophers" title="List of social and political philosophers">Social and political philosophers</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical traditions">Traditions</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Philosophy">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Western</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">Periods</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_literature" title="Category:Philosophical literature">Literature</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics_literature" title="Category:Aesthetics literature">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology_literature" title="Category:Epistemology literature">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics_literature" title="Category:Ethics literature">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic_literature" title="Category:Logic literature">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics_literature" title="Category:Metaphysics literature">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_literature" title="Category:Political philosophy literature">Political philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Legal philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy-related_lists" title="Category:Philosophy-related lists">Lists</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">Philosopher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><span class="metadata"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" width="10" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_sidebar&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Western philosophers have often been divided into some major branches, or schools, based either on the questions typically addressed by people working in different parts of the field, or notions of ideological undercurrents. In the ancient world, the most influential division of the subject was the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a>' division of philosophy into <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></b> (conceived as the study of the nature of the world, and including both <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>). In contemporary philosophy, specialties within the field are more commonly divided into <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> (the latter two of which together comprise <a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">axiology</a>). Logic is sometimes included as a main branch of philosophy, sometimes as a separate science philosophers happen to work on, and sometimes just as a characteristically philosophical method applying to all branches of philosophy.</p>
<p>Within these broad branches there are now numerous sub-disciplines of philosophy. At the broadest level there is the division between <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a> (the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Continental_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Philosophy">Continental Philosophy</a> (in the rest of Europe). For <a href="/wiki/Continental_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Philosophy">Continental Philosophy</a> subdividing philosophy between "experts" is problematic for the very nature of the interdisciplinary task of philosophy itself; however, for most of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic Philosophy">Analytic Philosophy</a> further divisions simplify the task for philosophers in each area.</p>
<p>The interest in particular sub-disciplines waxes and wanes over time; sometimes sub-disciplines become particularly hot topics and can occupy so much space in the literature that they almost seem like major branches in their own right. (Over the past 40 years or so <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>—which is, generally speaking, mainly a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>—has taken on this position within <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a>, and has attracted so much attention that some suggest philosophy of mind as <i>the</i> paradigm for what contemporary Analytic philosophers do).</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_contrasted_with_other_disciplines">Philosophy contrasted with other disciplines</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy contrasted with other disciplines">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_science">Natural science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Natural science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Originally the term "philosophy" was applied to <i>all</i> intellectual endeavours. Aristotle studied what would now be called <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, alongside his metaphysics and ethics. Even in the eighteenth century physics and chemistry were still classified as "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>", that is, the philosophical study of nature. Today these latter subjects are popularly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a>, and as separate from philosophy. But the distinction is not clear; some philosophers still contend that science retains an unbroken&#160;— and unbreakable&#160;— link to philosophy.</p>
<p>More recently, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> were once the domain of philosophers insofar as they were studied at all, but now have only a weaker connection with the field. In the late twentieth century <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> could be seen as being forged in part out of "<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>."</p>
<p>Philosophy is done primarily through <a href="/wiki/Human_self-reflection" title="Human self-reflection">reflection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical thought">critical thought</a>. It does not tend to rely on <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a>. However, in some ways philosophy is close to science in its character and method; some <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophers</a> have suggested that the method of philosophical analysis allows philosophers to emulate the methods of natural science; <a href="/wiki/W._V._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. Quine">Quine</a> holds that philosophy does no more than clarify the arguments and claims of other sciences. This suggests that philosophy might be the study of meaning and reasoning generally; but some still would claim either that this is not a science, or that if it is it ought not to be pursued by philosophers.</p>
<p>All these views have something in common: whatever philosophy essentially is or is concerned with, it tends on the whole to proceed more "abstractly" than most (or most other) natural sciences. It does not depend as much on experience and experiment, and does not contribute as directly to technology. It clearly would be a mistake to identify philosophy with any one natural science; whether it can be identified with science very broadly construed is still an open question.</p>
<p>This is an active discipline pursued by both trained philosophers and scientists. Philosophers often <i>refer to</i>, and interpret, experimental work of various kinds (as in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">philosophy of physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">philosophy of psychology</a>). But this is not surprising: such branches of philosophy aim at philosophical understanding <i>of</i> experimental work. It is not the philosophers in their capacity <i>as</i> philosophers, who perform the experiments and formulate the scientific theories under study. Philosophy of science should not be confused with science it studies any more than biology should be confused with plants and animals.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theology_and_religious_studies">Theology and religious studies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Theology and religious studies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Like philosophy, most <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a> are not experimental. Parts of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, including questions about the existence and nature of gods, clearly overlap with <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>. Aristotle considered <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> a branch of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, the central field of philosophy, and most philosophers before the twentieth century have devoted significant effort to theological questions. So the two are not unrelated. But other parts of religious studies, such as the comparison of different world religions, can be easily distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished from philosophy. These are closer to history and sociology, and involve specific observations of particular phenomena, here particular religious practices.</p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Empiricist" class="mw-redirect" title="Empiricist">Empiricist</a> tradition in modern philosophy often held that religious questions are beyond the scope of human knowledge, and many have claimed that religious language is literally meaningless: there are not even questions to be answered. Some philosophers have felt that these difficulties in evidence were irrelevant, and have argued for, against, or just about religious beliefs on moral or other grounds.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mathematics">Mathematics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Mathematics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>; but in many ways mathematics has a special relationship to philosophy. This is because the study of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> is a central branch of philosophy, and mathematics is a paradigmatic example of logic. In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, logic made great advances, and mathematics has been proven to be reducible to logic (at least, to first-order logic with some <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>). The use of formal, mathematical logic in philosophy now resembles the use of mathematics in science, although it is not as frequent.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
<table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px">
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" width="18" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophical_isms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of philosophical isms">Glossary of philosophical isms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of philosophers">List of philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="List of philosophical theories">List of philosophical theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index of philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">List of philosophies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudophilosophy" title="Pseudophilosophy">Pseudophilosophy</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Kenny, Anthony</a>. <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press; 2011)</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/idea/758">Western philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/history-of-western-philosophy">Western philosophy</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu">www.iep.utm.edu</a> - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forums.philosophyforums.com/">Philosophy Forums</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/philos/links.htm">Philosophy Sites on the Internet - Tel Aviv University list</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rep.routledge.com/views/home.html">The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sqapo.com/index.htm">Glyn Hughes' Squashed Philosophers</a> - abridged versions of classic philosophy texts.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sophiasdialectic.com">Philosophy Wiki</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lutterworth.com/lp/titles/shwphil.htm">Short History of Western Philosophy, A</a>, by Johannes Hirschberger; edited by Clare Hay; <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780718830922" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7188-3092-2</a></li>
</ul>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_topics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Western</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Western</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570473">00570473</a></span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>


<!-- 
NewPP limit report
Parsed by mw1268
Cached time: 20160705042434
Cache expiry: 2592000
Dynamic content: false
CPU time usage: 0.212 seconds
Real time usage: 0.264 seconds
Preprocessor visited node count: 1395/1000000
Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000
Post?expand include size: 197176/2097152 bytes
Template argument size: 20942/2097152 bytes
Highest expansion depth: 16/40
Expensive parser function count: 0/500
Lua time usage: 0.075/10.000 seconds
Lua memory usage: 1.97 MB/50 MB
Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1-->

<!-- 
Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)
100.00%  176.113      1 - -total
 46.20%   81.366      1 - Template:Philosophy_topics
 43.55%   76.700      1 - Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups
 31.19%   54.933      8 - Template:Navbox
 17.88%   31.482      1 - Template:Philosophy_sidebar
 16.34%   28.772      1 - Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists
 16.28%   28.680      1 - Template:History_of_Western_philosophy
 12.93%   22.772      1 - Template:Authority_control
  6.76%   11.899      1 - Template:Portal-inline
  5.78%   10.177      3 - Template:Hlist
-->

<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:13704154-0!*!0!!en!4!* and timestamp 20160705042433 and revision id 722495133
 -->
<noscript><img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" /></noscript></div>					<div class="printfooter">
						Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;oldid=722495133">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;oldid=722495133</a>"					</div>
				<div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Western_culture" title="Category:Western culture">Western culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Western_philosophy" title="Category:Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div>				<div class="visualClear"></div>
							</div>
		</div>
		<div id="mw-navigation">
			<h2>Navigation menu</h2>

			<div id="mw-head">
									<div id="p-personal" role="navigation" class="" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label">
						<h3 id="p-personal-label">Personal tools</h3>
						<ul>
							<li id="pt-anonuserpage">Not logged in</li><li id="pt-anontalk"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li><li id="pt-anoncontribs"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Western+philosophy" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory">Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Western+philosophy" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o">Log in</a></li>						</ul>
					</div>
									<div id="left-navigation">
										<div id="p-namespaces" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-namespaces-label">
						<h3 id="p-namespaces-label">Namespaces</h3>
						<ul>
															<li  id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy"  title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></span></li>
															<li  id="ca-talk"><span><a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_philosophy"  title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t" rel="discussion">Talk</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-variants" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-variants-label">
												<h3 id="p-variants-label">
							<span>Variants</span><a href="#"></a>
						</h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
									</div>
				<div id="right-navigation">
										<div id="p-views" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-views-label">
						<h3 id="p-views-label">Views</h3>
						<ul>
															<li id="ca-view" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" >Read</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-edit"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=edit"  title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-history" class="collapsible"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=history"  title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-cactions" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-cactions-label">
						<h3 id="p-cactions-label"><span>More</span><a href="#"></a></h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
										<div id="p-search" role="search">
						<h3>
							<label for="searchInput">Search</label>
						</h3>

						<form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform">
							<div id="simpleSearch">
							<input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"/><input type="hidden" value="Special:Search" name="title"/><input type="submit" name="fulltext" value="Search" title="Search Wikipedia for this text" id="mw-searchButton" class="searchButton mw-fallbackSearchButton"/><input type="submit" name="go" value="Go" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists" id="searchButton" class="searchButton"/>							</div>
						</form>
					</div>
									</div>
			</div>
			<div id="mw-panel">
				<div id="p-logo" role="banner"><a class="mw-wiki-logo" href="/wiki/Main_Page"  title="Visit the main page"></a></div>
						<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-navigation' aria-labelledby='p-navigation-label'>
			<h3 id='p-navigation-label'>Navigation</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-mainpage-description"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-featuredcontent"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Featured_content" title="Featured content – the best of Wikipedia">Featured content</a></li><li id="n-currentevents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Find background information on current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Load a random article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-sitesupport"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en" title="Support us">Donate to Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-shoplink"><a href="//shop.wikimedia.org" title="Visit the Wikipedia store">Wikipedia store</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-interaction' aria-labelledby='p-interaction-label'>
			<h3 id='p-interaction-label'>Interaction</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-help"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Find out about Wikipedia">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-portal"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="About the project, what you can do, where to find things">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes in the wiki [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-contactpage"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-tb' aria-labelledby='p-tb-label'>
			<h3 id='p-tb-label'>Tools</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Western_philosophy" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Western_philosophy" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;oldid=722495133" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-wikibase"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q842333" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li><li id="t-cite"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Western_philosophy&amp;id=722495133" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-coll-print_export' aria-labelledby='p-coll-print_export-label'>
			<h3 id='p-coll-print_export-label'>Print/export</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=book_creator&amp;referer=Western+philosophy">Create a book</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rdf2latex"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=render_article&amp;arttitle=Western+philosophy&amp;returnto=Western+philosophy&amp;oldid=722495133&amp;writer=rdf2latex">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-wikibase-otherprojects' aria-labelledby='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>
			<h3 id='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>In other projects</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Western_philosophy" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-lang' aria-labelledby='p-lang-label'>
			<h3 id='p-lang-label'>Languages</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="?لس?ة غربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99rb_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="Qərb fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se-i%C3%BB%E2%81%BF_tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Se-iû? tiat-ha?k – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="//bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पाश?चात?य दर?शन – भोजप?री" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजप?री</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Западна фило?офи? – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh_ar_C%27horn%C3%B4g" title="Prederouriezh ar C'hornôg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne_filosoofia" title="Lääne filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okcidenta_filozofio" title="Okcidenta filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendebaldeko_filosofia" title="Mendebaldeko filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="?لس?ه غربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_occidentale" title="Philosophie occidentale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="서양 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արևմտյան փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पाश?चात?य दर?शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadnja%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Zapadnja?ka filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Barat" title="Filsafat Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestr%C3%A6n_heimspeki" title="Vestræn heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_Occidentalis" title="Philosophia Occidentalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Западна филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah_Barat" title="Falsafah Barat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पाश?चात?य दर?शन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西洋哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestlig_filosofi" title="Vestlig filosofi – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%CA%BBarb_falsafasi" title="Gʻarb falsafasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਪੱਛਮੀ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%90%D8%AF%D9%8A%DA%81%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="لو?دي?ه ?لس?ه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westan_filasafi" title="Westan filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi"><a href="//tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi_long_Wes" title="Pilosopi long Wes – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_Zachodu" title="Filozofia Zachodu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_ocidental" title="Filosofia ocidental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Западна? фило?офи? – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastren_filosofie" title="Wastren filosofie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="?ەلسە?ەی ڕۆژاوایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadna_filozofija" title="Zapadna filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4sterl%C3%A4ndsk_filosofi" title="Västerländsk filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanluraning_pilosopiya" title="Kanluraning pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மேற?க?லக மெய?யியல? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81" title="ปรัช?าตะวันต? – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_felsefesi" title="Batı felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Західна філо?офі? – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_T%C3%A2y" title="Triết h?c phương Tây – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="西方哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
				<div class='after-portlet after-portlet-lang'><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q842333#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div>			</div>
		</div>
				</div>
		</div>
		<div id="footer" role="contentinfo">
							<ul id="footer-info">
											<li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 28 May 2016, at 14:23.</li>
											<li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" style="display:none;"></a>;
additional terms may apply.  By using this site, you agree to the <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="//www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li>
									</ul>
							<ul id="footer-places">
											<li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="wmf:Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" title="Wikipedia:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute">Developers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&amp;mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li>
									</ul>
										<ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint">
											<li id="footer-copyrightico">
							<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="/static/images/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="/static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation"/></a>						</li>
											<li id="footer-poweredbyico">
							<a href="//www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31"/></a>						</li>
									</ul>
						<div style="clear:both"></div>
		</div>
		<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.state({"ext.globalCssJs.site":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready"});mw.loader.load(["mediawiki.toc","mediawiki.action.view.postEdit","site","mediawiki.user","mediawiki.hidpi","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.searchSuggest","ext.eventLogging.subscriber","ext.gadget.teahouse","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.DRN-wizard","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.featured-articles-links","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","schema.UniversalLanguageSelector","ext.uls.eventlogger","ext.uls.interlanguage"]);});</script><script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":69,"wgHostname":"mw1238"});});</script>
	</body>
</html>
