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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Truth</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Truth_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Truth (disambiguation)">Truth (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging" title="Wikipedia:Merging">merged</a> with <i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></i>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Truth" title="Talk:Truth">Discuss</a>) <small><i>Proposed since March 2016.</i></small></span></td>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a series on</td>
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<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Approximation" title="Approximation">Approximation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Doubt" title="Doubt">Doubt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proof_(truth)" title="Proof (truth)">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Truth</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li>
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<p>Related concepts and fundamentals:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition_(philosophy)" title="Presupposition (philosophy)">Presupposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>
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<i><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a> Saving Truth from Falsehood and <a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">Envy</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lemoyne" title="François Lemoyne">François Lemoyne</a>, 1737</div>
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Truth, holding a <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirror</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" title="Serpent (symbolism)">serpent</a> (1896). <a href="/wiki/Olin_Levi_Warner" title="Olin Levi Warner">Olin Levi Warner</a>, Library of Congress <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Building" title="Thomas Jefferson Building">Thomas Jefferson Building</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div>
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<p><b>Truth</b> is most often used to mean being in accord with <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-def-1">[1]</a></sup> or fidelity to an original or standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-def-1">[1]</a></sup> Truth may also often be used in <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern</a> contexts to refer to an idea of "truth to self," or <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a>.</p>
<p>The commonly understood <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence" title="Principle of bivalence">opposite</a> of truth is <a href="/wiki/Falsity" title="Falsity">falsehood</a>, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of truth is discussed and <a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">debated</a> in several contexts, including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>. Many human activities depend upon the concept, where its nature as a concept is assumed rather than being a subject of discussion; these include most (but not all) of the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a>, and everyday life. Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. Commonly, truth is viewed as the correspondence of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a> to an independent <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, in what is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory of truth</a>.</p>
<p>Other philosophers take this common meaning to be secondary and derivative. According to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, the original meaning and <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> of "Truth" in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> was unconcealment, or the revealing or bringing of what was previously hidden into the open, as indicated by the original Greek term for truth, "<a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">Aletheia</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> On this view, the conception of truth as correctness is a later derivation from the concept's original essence, a development Heidegger traces to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> term "<a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a>."</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Pragmatists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatists">Pragmatists</a> like <a href="/wiki/C.S._Pierce" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Pierce">C.S. Pierce</a> take Truth to have some manner of essential relation to human practices for inquiring into and <a href="/wiki/Discovering" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovering">discovering</a> Truth, with Pierce himself holding that Truth is what human <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a> would find out on a matter, if our practice of inquiry were taken as far as it could profitably go: "The opinion which is fated to be ultimately agreed to by all who investigate, is what we mean by the truth..."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></p>
<p>Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, and theologians.<sup id="cite_ref-PUP32014_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PUP32014-5">[5]</a></sup> Language and words are a means by which humans convey <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> to one another and the method used to determine what is a "truth" is termed a <a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">criterion of truth</a>. There are differing claims on such questions as what constitutes truth: what things are <a href="/wiki/Truthbearer" class="mw-redirect" title="Truthbearer">truthbearers</a> capable of being true or false; how to define and identify truth; the roles that faith-based and empirically based <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> play; and whether truth is <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> or <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge relativity">relative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">absolute</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> famously suggested that an ancient, metaphysical belief in the divinity of Truth lies at the heart of and has served as the foundation for the entire subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_intellectual_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Western intellectual tradition">Western intellectual tradition</a>: "But you will have gathered what I am getting at, namely, that it is still a <i>metaphysical faith on which our faith in science rests--that even we knowers of today, we godless anti-metaphysicians still take</i> our <i>fire too, from the flame lit by the thousand-year old faith, the Christian faith which was also Plato's faith, that God is Truth; that Truth is '<b>Divine'</b>..."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></i></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition_and_etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definition and etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Major_theories"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Major theories</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Substantive_theories"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Substantive theories</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Correspondence_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Correspondence theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Coherence_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Coherence theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Constructivist_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Constructivist theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Consensus_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Consensus theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Pragmatic_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Pragmatic theory</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Minimalist_.28deflationary.29_theories"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Minimalist (deflationary) theories</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Performative_theory_of_truth"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Performative theory of truth</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Redundancy_and_related_theories"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Redundancy and related theories</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Pluralist_theories"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Pluralist theories</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Most_believed_theories"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Most believed theories</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Formal_theories"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Formal theories</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Truth_in_logic"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Truth in logic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Truth_in_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Truth in mathematics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Semantic_theory_of_truth"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Semantic theory of truth</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Kripke.27s_theory_of_truth"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Kripke's theory of truth</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Revision_theory_of_truth"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Revision theory of truth</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Notable_views"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Notable views</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Ancient_history"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient history</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Middle Ages</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Avicenna"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Avicenna</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Aquinas"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aquinas</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Changing_concepts_of_truth_in_the_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Changing concepts of truth in the Middle Ages</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Modern_age"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern age</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Kant"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kant</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Hegel"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hegel</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Schopenhauer"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Schopenhauer</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Kierkegaard"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Kierkegaard</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Nietzsche"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Nietzsche</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Whitehead"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Whitehead</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Nishida"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Nishida</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Fromm"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.8</span> <span class="toctext">Fromm</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#Foucault"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.9</span> <span class="toctext">Foucault</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Baudrillard"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.10</span> <span class="toctext">Baudrillard</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#In_medicine_and_psychiatry"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">In medicine and psychiatry</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#In_religion:_omniscience"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">In religion: omniscience</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Major_theorists"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Major theorists</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definition_and_etymology">Definition and etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">Aletheia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tryggvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tryggvi">Tryggvi</a></div>
<p><span id="treowe"></span></p>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a series on</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Approximation" title="Approximation">Approximation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Doubt" title="Doubt">Doubt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proof_(truth)" title="Proof (truth)">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Truth</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<p>Related concepts and fundamentals:</p>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition_(philosophy)" title="Presupposition (philosophy)">Presupposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>
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An angel carrying the banner of "Truth", Roslin, Midlothian</div>
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<p>The English word <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/truth" class="extiw" title="wikt:truth">truth</a></i> is derived from <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <i>tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ</i>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> <i>trewþe</i>, cognate to <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <i>triuwida</i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <i>tryggð</i>. Like <i><a href="/wiki/Troth_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Troth (disambiguation)">troth</a></i>, it is a <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-th" class="extiw" title="wikt:-th">-th</a></i> nominalisation of the adjective <i>true</i> (Old English <i>tréowe</i>).</p>
<p>The English word <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/true" class="extiw" title="wikt:true">true</a></i> is from Old English (<a href="/wiki/West_Sexaon_dialect_(Old_English)" class="mw-redirect" title="West Sexaon dialect (Old English)">West Saxon</a>) <i>(ge)tríewe, <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/treowe" class="extiw" title="wikt:treowe">tréowe</a></i>, cognate to <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> <i>(gi)trûui</i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <i>(ga)triuwu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Modern_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern German">Modern German</a> <i>treu</i> "faithful"), <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <i>tryggr</i>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> <i>triggws</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> all from a <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> <i>*trewwj-</i> "having <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a>", perhaps ultimately from PIE *dru- "tree", on the notion of "steadfast as an oak" (e.g., Sanskrit "dru" tree).<sup id="cite_ref-Truth_from_Online_Etymology_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Truth_from_Online_Etymology-9">[9]</a></sup> Old Norse <i><span lang="is" xml:lang="is">trú</span></i>, "faith, word of honour; religious faith, belief"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> (archaic English <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/troth" class="extiw" title="wikt:troth">troth</a></i> "loyalty, honesty, good faith", compare <i><span lang="is" xml:lang="is"><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%81satr%C3%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:?satrú">?satrú</a></span></i>).</p>
<p>Thus, 'truth' involves both the quality of "faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity",<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> and that of "agreement with <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>", in Anglo-Saxon expressed by <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C5%8D%C3%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:s?þ">s?þ</a></i> (Modern English <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sooth" class="extiw" title="wikt:sooth">sooth</a></i>).</p>
<p>All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a terminological distinction between truth "fidelity" and truth "factuality". To express "factuality", <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> opted for nouns derived from <i>sanna</i> "to assert, affirm", while continental <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> (German and Dutch) opted for continuations of <i>wâra</i> "faith, trust, pact" (cognate to Slavic <i>věra</i> "(religious) faith", but influenced by Latin <i><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">verus</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance languages</a> use terms following the Latin <i><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">veritas</a></i>, while the Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">aletheia</a></i>, Russian <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pravda" class="extiw" title="wikt:pravda">pravda</a></i> and South Slavic <i>istina</i> have separate etymological origins.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_theories">Major theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Major theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The question of what is a proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs may properly be considered true, whether by a single person or an entire society, is dealt with by the five most prevalent substantive theories listed below. Each presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p>However, the substantive theories are not universally accepted. More recently developed "<a href="/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth" title="Deflationary theory of truth">deflationary</a>" or "minimalist" theories of truth have emerged as competitors to the older substantive theories. Minimalist reasoning centres around the notion that the application of a term like <i>true</i> to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its <i>nature</i>. Minimalist reasoning realises <i>truth</i> as a label utilised in general discourse to express agreement, to stress claims, or to form general assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Substantive_theories">Substantive theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Substantive theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Correspondence_theory">Correspondence theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Correspondence theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></div>
<p>Correspondence theories emphasise that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other. It is a traditional model tracing its origins to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to "things", by whether it accurately describes those "things." An example of correspondence theory is the statement by the thirteenth century philosopher/theologian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>: <i>Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus</i> ("Truth is the equation [or adequation] of things and <a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">intellect</a>"), a statement which Aquinas attributed to the ninth century <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonist">neoplatonist</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Aquinas also restated the theory as: "A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup></p>
<p>Correspondence theory centres heavily around the assumption that truth is a matter of accurately copying what is known as "<a href="/wiki/Objective_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective reality">objective reality</a>" and then representing it in thoughts, words and other symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> For example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages. The <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> word <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitgeist" title="Zeitgeist">Zeitgeist</a></i> is one such example: one who speaks or understands the language may "know" what it means, but any translation of the word apparently fails to accurately capture its full meaning (this is a problem with many abstract words, especially those derived in <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative languages">agglutinative languages</a>). Thus, some words add an additional parameter to the construction of an accurate <a href="/wiki/Truth_predicate" title="Truth predicate">truth predicate</a>. Among the philosophers who grappled with this problem is <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">semantic theory</a> is summarized further below in this article.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></p>
<p>Proponents of several of the theories below have gone further to assert that there are yet other issues necessary to the analysis, such as interpersonal power struggles, community interactions, personal biases and other factors involved in deciding what is seen as truth.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Coherence_theory">Coherence theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Coherence theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">Coherence theory of truth</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Truth.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/220px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg" width="220" height="294" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/330px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/440px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2488" data-file-height="3320" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Walter_Seymour_Allward" title="Walter Seymour Allward">Walter Seymour Allward</a>'s <i>Veritas</i> (Truth) outside <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottawa,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa, Ontario">Ottawa, Ontario</a> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></div>
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<p>For coherence theories in general, truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> A pervasive tenet of coherence theories is the idea that truth is primarily a property of whole systems of propositions, and can be ascribed to individual propositions only according to their coherence with the whole. Among the assortment of perspectives commonly regarded as coherence theory, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence entails many possible true systems of thought or only a single absolute system.</p>
<p>Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to describe the essential and intrinsic properties of <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal systems</a> in logic and mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> However, formal reasoners are content to contemplate <a href="/wiki/Independence_(mathematical_logic)" title="Independence (mathematical logic)">axiomatically independent</a> and sometimes mutually contradictory systems side by side, for example, the various <a href="/wiki/Noneuclidean_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Noneuclidean geometry">alternative geometries</a>. On the whole, coherence theories have been rejected for lacking justification in their application to other areas of truth, especially with respect to assertions about the <a href="/wiki/Natural_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural world">natural world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> data in general, assertions about practical matters of psychology and society, especially when used without support from the other major theories of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></p>
<p>Coherence theories distinguish the thought of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> philosophers, particularly of <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/G.W.F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G.W.F. Hegel">G.W.F. Hegel</a>, along with the British philosopher <a href="/wiki/F.H._Bradley" class="mw-redirect" title="F.H. Bradley">F.H. Bradley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> They have found a resurgence also among several proponents of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hempel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Hempel">Carl Hempel</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Constructivist_theory">Constructivist theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Constructivist theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Social constructivism</a> holds that truth is constructed by social processes, is historically and culturally specific, and that it is in part shaped through the power struggles within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed," because it does not reflect any external "transcendent" realities (as a pure correspondence theory might hold). Rather, perceptions of truth are viewed as contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, are socially constructed.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a> was among the first to claim that history and culture were man-made. Vico's <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> orientation gathers the most diverse rays and unfolds in one axiom&#160;– <i>verum ipsum factum</i>&#160;– "truth itself is constructed". <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a> were among the other early proponents of the premise that truth is, or can be, socially constructed. Marx, like many critical theorists who followed, did not reject the existence of objective truth but rather distinguished between true knowledge and knowledge that has been distorted through power or ideology. For Marx, scientific and true knowledge is "in accordance with the dialectical understanding of history" and ideological knowledge is "an epiphenomenal expression of the relation of material forces in a given economic arrangement".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Consensus_theory">Consensus theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Consensus theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">Consensus theory of truth</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">Consensus theory</a> holds that truth is whatever is agreed upon, or in some versions, might come to be agreed upon, by some specified group. Such a group might include all human beings, or a <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> thereof consisting of more than one person.</p>
<p>Among the current advocates of consensus theory as a useful accounting of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_speech_situation" title="Ideal speech situation">ideal speech situation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> Among the current strong critics of consensus theory is the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Pragmatic_theory">Pragmatic theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Pragmatic theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth" title="Pragmatic theory of truth">Pragmatic theory of truth</a></div>
<p>The three most influential forms of the <i>pragmatic theory of truth</i> were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. Although there are wide differences in viewpoint among these and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they hold in common that truth is verified and confirmed by the results of putting one's concepts into practice.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a> defines truth as follows: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth."<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity-35">[35]</a></sup> This statement stresses Peirce's view that ideas of approximation, incompleteness, and partiality, what he describes elsewhere as <i><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a></i> and "reference to the future", are essential to a proper conception of truth. Although Peirce uses words like <i>concordance</i> and <i>correspondence</i> to describe one aspect of the pragmatic <a href="/wiki/Sign_relation" title="Sign relation">sign relation</a>, he is also quite explicit in saying that definitions of truth based on mere correspondence are no more than <i>nominal</i> definitions, which he accords a lower status than <i>real</i> definitions.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>'s version of pragmatic theory, while complex, is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving."<sup id="cite_ref-WJP_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WJP-36">[36]</a></sup> By this, James meant that truth is a <i>quality</i>, the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to practice (thus, "pragmatic").</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, less broadly than James but more broadly than Peirce, held that <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a>, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical or cultural, is self-corrective over time <i>if</i> openly submitted for testing by a community of inquirers in order to clarify, justify, refine and/or refute proposed truths.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
<p>Though not widely known, a new variation of the pragmatic theory was defined and wielded successfully from the 20th century forward. Defined and named by <a href="/wiki/William_Ernest_Hocking" title="William Ernest Hocking">William Ernest Hocking</a>, this variation is known as "negative pragmatism". Essentially, what works may or may not be true, but what fails cannot be true because the truth always works.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> also ascribed to it: "We never are definitely right, we can only be sure we are wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-FeynmanThe_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FeynmanThe-39">[39]</a></sup> This approach incorporates many of the ideas from Peirce, James, and Dewey. For Peirce, the idea of "... endless investigation would tend to bring about scientific belief ..." fits negative pragmatism in that a negative pragmatist would never stop testing. As Feynman noted, an idea or theory "... could never be proved right, because tomorrow's experiment might succeed in proving wrong what you thought was right."<sup id="cite_ref-FeynmanThe_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FeynmanThe-39">[39]</a></sup> Similarly, James and Dewey's ideas also ascribe truth to repeated testing which is "self-corrective" over time.</p>
<p>Pragmatism and negative pragmatism are also closely aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">coherence theory of truth</a> in that any testing should not be isolated but rather incorporate knowledge from all human endeavors and experience. The universe is a whole and integrated system, and testing should acknowledge and account for its diversity. As Feynman said, "... if it disagrees with experiment, it is wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Minimalist_.28deflationary.29_theories">Minimalist (deflationary) theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Minimalist (deflationary) theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth" title="Deflationary theory of truth">Deflationary theory of truth</a></div>
<p>Modern developments in the field of philosophy, starting with the relatively modern notion that a theory being old does not necessarily imply that it is completely flawless, have resulted in the rise of a new thesis: that the term <i>truth</i> does not denote a real property of sentences or propositions. This thesis is in part a response to the common use of <i>truth predicates</i> (e.g., that some particular thing "...is true") which was particularly prevalent in philosophical discourse on truth in the first half of the 20th century. From this point of view, to assert that "'2 + 2 = 4' is true" is logically equivalent to asserting that "2 + 2 = 4", and the phrase "is true" is completely dispensable in this and every other context. In common parlance, truth predicates are not commonly heard, and it would be interpreted as an unusual occurrence were someone to utilise a truth predicate in an everyday conversation when asserting that something is true. Newer perspectives that take this discrepancy into account and work with sentence structures that are actually employed in common discourse can be broadly described:</p>
<ul>
<li>as <i>deflationary</i> theories of truth, since they attempt to deflate the presumed importance of the words "true" or <i>truth</i>,</li>
<li>as <i>disquotational</i> theories, to draw attention to the disappearance of the quotation marks in cases like the above example, or</li>
<li>as <i>minimalist</i> theories of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<p>Whichever term is used, deflationary theories can be said to hold in common that "[t]he predicate 'true' is an expressive convenience, not the name of a property requiring deep analysis."<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup> Once we have identified the truth predicate's formal features and utility, deflationists argue, we have said all there is to be said about truth. Among the theoretical concerns of these views is to explain away those special cases where it <i>does</i> appear that the concept of truth has peculiar and interesting properties. (See, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Semantic_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic paradox">Semantic paradoxes</a>, and below.)</p>
<p>In addition to highlighting such formal aspects of the predicate "is true", some deflationists point out that the concept enables us to express things that might otherwise require infinitely long sentences. For example, one cannot express confidence in Michael's accuracy by asserting the endless sentence:</p>
<dl>
<dd><i>Michael says, 'snow is white' and snow is white, or he says 'roses are red' and roses are red or he says ... etc.</i></dd>
</dl>
<p>This assertion can also be succinctly expressed by saying: <i>What Michael says is true</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Performative_theory_of_truth">Performative theory of truth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Performative theory of truth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a> is the performative theory of truth which holds that to say "'Snow is white' is true" is to perform the <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech act</a> of signaling one's agreement with the claim that snow is white (much like nodding one's head in agreement). The idea that some statements are more actions than communicative statements is not as odd as it may seem. Consider, for example, that when the bride says "I do" at the appropriate time in a wedding, she is performing the act of taking this man to be her lawful wedded husband. She is not <i>describing</i> herself as taking this man, but actually doing so (perhaps the most thorough analysis of such "illocutionary acts" is <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>, "<a href="/wiki/How_to_Do_Things_With_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="How to Do Things With Words">How to Do Things With Words</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup>).</p>
<p>Strawson holds that a similar analysis is applicable to all speech acts, not just illocutionary ones: "To say a statement is true is not to make a statement about a statement, but rather to perform the act of agreeing with, accepting, or endorsing a statement. When one says 'It's true that it's raining,' one asserts no more than 'It's raining.' The function of [the statement] 'It's true that...' is to agree with, accept, or endorse the statement that 'it's raining.'"<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Redundancy_and_related_theories">Redundancy and related theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Redundancy and related theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">Redundancy theory of truth</a></div>
<p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">redundancy theory of truth</a>, asserting that a statement is true is completely equivalent to asserting the statement itself. For example, making the assertion that "&#160;'Snow is white' is true" is equivalent to asserting "Snow is white". Redundancy theorists infer from this premise that truth is a redundant concept; that is, it is merely a word that is traditionally used in conversation or writing, generally for emphasis, but not a word that actually equates to anything in reality. This theory is commonly attributed to <a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a>, who held that the use of words like <i>fact</i> and <i>truth</i> was nothing but a <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">roundabout</a> way of asserting a proposition, and that treating these words as separate problems in isolation from judgment was merely a "linguistic muddle".<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup></p>
<p>A variant of redundancy theory is the disquotational theory which uses a modified form of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Tarski</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Truth#Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Truth">schema</a>: To say that '"P" is true' is to say that P. A version of this theory was defended by <a href="/wiki/C._J._F._Williams" title="C. J. F. Williams">C. J. F. Williams</a> in his book <i>What is Truth?</i>. Yet another version of deflationism is the prosentential theory of truth, first developed by Dorothy Grover, Joseph Camp, and <a href="/wiki/Nuel_Belnap" title="Nuel Belnap">Nuel Belnap</a> as an elaboration of Ramsey's claims. They argue that sentences like "That's true", when said in response to "It's raining", are <a href="/wiki/Prosentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosentence">prosentences</a>, expressions that merely repeat the content of other expressions. In the same way that <i>it</i> means the same as <i>my dog</i> in the sentence <i>My dog was hungry, so I fed it</i>, <i>That's true</i> is supposed to mean the same as <i>It's raining</i> — if you say the latter and I then say the former. These variations do not necessarily follow Ramsey in asserting that truth is <i>not</i> a property, but rather can be understood to say that, for instance, the assertion "P" may well involve a substantial truth, and the theorists in this case are minimizing only the redundancy or prosentence involved in the statement such as "that's true."<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>Deflationary principles do not apply to representations that are not analogous to sentences, and also do not apply to many other things that are commonly judged to be true or otherwise. Consider the analogy between the sentence "Snow is white" and the character named Snow White, both of which can be true in some sense. To a minimalist, saying "Snow is white is true" is the same as saying "Snow is white," but to say "Snow White is true" is <i>not</i> the same as saying "Snow White."</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pluralist_theories">Pluralist theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Pluralist theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pluralist_theories_of_truth" title="Pluralist theories of truth">Pluralist theories of truth</a></div>
<p>Several of the major theories of truth hold that there is a particular property the having of which makes a belief or proposition true. Pluralist theories of truth assert that there may be more than one property that makes propositions true: ethical propositions might be true by virtue of coherence. Propositions about the physical world might be true by corresponding to the objects and properties they are about.</p>
<p>Some of the pragmatic theories, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, included aspects of correspondence, coherence and constructivist theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity-35">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WJP_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WJP-36">[36]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a> argued in his 1992 book <i>Truth and Objectivity</i> that any predicate which satisfied certain platitudes about truth qualified as a truth predicate. In some discourses, Wright argued, the role of the truth predicate might be played by the notion of superassertibility.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lynch_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Lynch (philosopher)">Michael Lynch</a>, in a 2009 book <i>Truth as One and Many</i>, argued that we should see truth as a functional property capable of being multiply manifested in distinct properties like correspondence or coherence.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Most_believed_theories">Most believed theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Most believed theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>According to a survey of professional philosophers and others on their philosophical views which was carried out in November 2009 (taken by 3226 respondents, including 1803 philosophy faculty members and/or PhDs and 829 philosophy graduate students) 44.9% of respondents accept or lean towards correspondence theories, 20.7% accept or lean towards deflationary theories and 13.8% <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth" title="Epistemic theories of truth">epistemic theories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Formal_theories">Formal theories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Formal theories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Truth_in_logic">Truth in logic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Truth in logic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">Criteria of truth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">Truth value</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a> is concerned with the patterns in <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> that can help tell us if a <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> is true or not. However, logic does not deal with truth in the absolute sense, as for instance a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysician</a> does. Logicians use <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a> to express the truths which they are concerned with, and as such there is only truth under some <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)" title="Interpretation (logic)">interpretation</a> or truth within some <a href="/wiki/Logical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical system">logical system</a>.</p>
<p>A logical truth (also called an analytic truth or a necessary truth) is a statement which is true in all possible worlds<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> or under all possible interpretations, as contrasted to a <i><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a></i> (also called a <i><a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">synthetic claim</a></i> or a <i><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary and sufficient condition">contingency</a></i>) which is only true in this <a href="/wiki/World_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (philosophy)">world</a> as it has historically unfolded. A proposition such as "If p and q, then p" is considered to be a logical truth because of the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Symbol_(formal)" title="Symbol (formal)">symbols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Well-formed_formula" title="Well-formed formula">words</a> in it and not because of any fact of any particular world. They are such that they could not be untrue.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Truth_in_mathematics">Truth in mathematics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Truth in mathematics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">Model theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proof_theory" title="Proof theory">Proof theory</a></div>
<p>There are two main approaches to truth in mathematics. They are the <i><a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">model theory of truth</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Proof_theory" title="Proof theory">proof theory of truth</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup></p>
<p>Historically, with the nineteenth century development of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean algebra (logic)">Boolean algebra</a> mathematical models of logic began to treat "truth", also represented as "T" or "1", as an arbitrary constant. "Falsity" is also an arbitrary constant, which can be represented as "F" or "0". In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional logic">propositional logic</a>, these symbols can be manipulated according to a set of <a href="/wiki/Axioms" class="mw-redirect" title="Axioms">axioms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_inference" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of inference">rules of inference</a>, often given in the form of <a href="/wiki/Truth_table" title="Truth table">truth tables</a>.</p>
<p>In addition, from at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_program" title="Hilbert's program">Hilbert's program</a> at the turn of the twentieth century to the proof of <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorems">Gödel's incompleteness theorems</a> and the development of the <a href="/wiki/Church-Turing_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Church-Turing thesis">Church-Turing thesis</a> in the early part of that century, true statements in mathematics were generally assumed to be those statements that are provable in a formal axiomatic system.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
<p>The works of <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, and others shook this assumption, with the development of statements that are true but cannot be proven within the system.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> Two examples of the latter can be found in <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_problems" title="Hilbert's problems">Hilbert's problems</a>. Work on <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_10th_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilbert's 10th problem">Hilbert's 10th problem</a> led in the late twentieth century to the construction of specific <a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Diophantine equations">Diophantine equations</a> for which it is undecidable whether they have a solution,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> or even if they do, whether they have a finite or infinite number of solutions. More fundamentally, <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_first_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilbert's first problem">Hilbert's first problem</a> was on the <a href="/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis" title="Continuum hypothesis">continuum hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> Gödel and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Cohen (mathematician)">Paul Cohen</a> showed that this hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved using the standard <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> In the view of some, then, it is equally reasonable to take either the continuum hypothesis or its negation as a new axiom.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Semantic_theory_of_truth">Semantic theory of truth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Semantic theory of truth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">Semantic theory of truth</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">semantic theory of truth</a> has as its general case for a given language:</p>
<dl>
<dd>'P' is true if and only if P</dd>
</dl>
<p>where 'P' refers to the sentence (the sentence's name), and P is just the sentence itself.</p>
<p>Logician and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a> developed the theory for formal languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>). Here he restricted it in this way: no language could contain its own truth predicate, that is, the expression <i>is true</i> could only apply to sentences in some other language. The latter he called an <i>object language</i>, the language being talked about. (It may, in turn, have a truth predicate that can be applied to sentences in still another language.) The reason for his restriction was that languages that contain their own truth predicate will contain <a href="/wiki/Liar_paradox" title="Liar paradox">paradoxical</a> sentences such as, "This sentence is not true". As a result, Tarski held that the semantic theory could not be applied to any natural language, such as English, because they contain their own truth predicates. <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> used it as the foundation of his <a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">truth-conditional semantics</a> and linked it to <a href="/wiki/Radical_interpretation" title="Radical interpretation">radical interpretation</a> in a form of <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> is credited with noticing the existence of such paradoxes even in the best symbolic formations of mathematics in his day, in particular the paradox that came to be named after him, <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a>. Russell and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a> attempted to solve these problems in <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> by putting statements into a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">types</a>, wherein a statement cannot refer to itself, but only to statements lower in the hierarchy. This in turn led to new orders of difficulty regarding the precise natures of types and the structures of conceptually possible <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type systems</a> that have yet to be resolved to this day.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Kripke.27s_theory_of_truth">Kripke's theory of truth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Kripke's theory of truth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> contends that a natural language can in fact contain its own truth predicate without giving rise to contradiction. He showed how to construct one as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li>Begin with a subset of sentences of a natural language that contains no occurrences of the expression "is true" (or "is false"). So <i>The barn is big</i> is included in the subset, but not " <i>The barn is big</i> is true", nor problematic sentences such as "<i>This sentence</i> is false".</li>
<li>Define truth just for the sentences in that subset.</li>
<li>Then extend the definition of truth to include sentences that predicate truth or falsity of one of the original subset of sentences. So "<i>The barn is big</i> is true" is now included, but not either "<i>This sentence</i> is false" nor "'<i>The barn is big</i> is true' is true".</li>
<li>Next, define truth for all sentences that predicate truth or falsity of a member of the second set. Imagine this process repeated infinitely, so that truth is defined for <i>The barn is big</i>; then for "<i>The barn is big</i> is true"; then for "'<i>The barn is big</i> is true' is true", and so on.</li>
</ul>
<p>Notice that truth never gets defined for sentences like <i>This sentence is false</i>, since it was not in the original subset and does not predicate truth of any sentence in the original or any subsequent set. In Kripke's terms, these are "ungrounded." Since these sentences are never assigned either truth or falsehood even if the process is carried out infinitely, Kripke's theory implies that some sentences are neither true nor false. This contradicts the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence" title="Principle of bivalence">Principle of bivalence</a>: every sentence must be either true or false. Since this principle is a key premise in deriving the <a href="/wiki/Liar_paradox" title="Liar paradox">Liar paradox</a>, the paradox is dissolved.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
<p>However, it has been shown by <a href="/wiki/Proof_sketch_for_G%C3%B6del%27s_first_incompleteness_theorem" title="Proof sketch for Gödel's first incompleteness theorem">Gödel</a> that self-reference cannot be avoided naively, since propositions about seemingly unrelated objects can have an informal self-referential meaning; in Gödel's work, these objects are integer numbers, and they have an informal meaning regarding propositions. In fact, this idea - manifested by the <a href="/wiki/Diagonal_lemma" title="Diagonal lemma">diagonal lemma</a> - is the basis for <a href="/wiki/Tarski%27s_undefinability_theorem" title="Tarski's undefinability theorem">Tarski's theorem</a> that truth cannot be consistently defined.</p>
<p>It has thus been claimed<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> that Kripke's system indeed leads to contradiction: while its truth predicate is only partial, it does give truth value (true/false) to propositions such as the one built in Tarski's proof, and is therefore inconsistent. While there is still a debate on whether Tarski's proof can be implemented to every similar partial truth system, none have been shown to be consistent by <a href="/wiki/Consistency_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Consistency proof">acceptable methods</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Revision_theory_of_truth">Revision theory of truth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Revision theory of truth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revision_Theory#Truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Revision Theory">Revision_Theory §&#160;Truth</a></div>
<p>The revision theory of truth, as developed by Anil Gupta and Nuel Belnap, takes truth to be a circular concept whose definition is the set of biconditionals of the form</p>
<dl>
<dd>'A' is true if and only if A.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></dd>
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<p>Unlike Kripke's theory of truth, revision theory can be used with classical logic and can maintain the principle of bivalence.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notable_views">Notable views</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Notable views">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9,_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg/220px-La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg" width="220" height="535" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg/330px-La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg/440px-La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9%2C_par_Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="2501" /></a>
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<i>La Vérité</i> "Truth" by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Joseph_Lefebvre" title="Jules Joseph Lefebvre">Jules Joseph Lefebvre</a></div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Ancient history">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> origins of the words "true" and "truth" have some consistent definitions throughout great spans of history that were often associated with topics of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">induction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>', <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s ideas about truth are seen by some as consistent with correspondence theory. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>, Aristotle stated: "To say of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is, is false, while to say of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not, is true".<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-60">[60]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> proceeds to say of Aristotle:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><i>"(...) Aristotle sounds much more like a genuine correspondence theorist in the</i> Categories <i>(12b11, 14b14), where he talks of "underlying things" that make statements true and implies that these "things" (pragmata) are logically structured situations or facts (viz., his sitting, his not sitting). Most influential is his claim in</i> De Interpretatione <i>(16a3) that thoughts are "likenessess" (homoiosis) of things. Although he nowhere defines truth in terms of a thought's likeness to a thing or fact, it is clear that such a definition would fit well into his overall philosophy of mind. (...)"</i><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Very similar statements can also be found in Plato (Cratylus 385b2, Sophist 263b).<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, Truth is defined as "unchangeable", "that which has no distortion", "that which is beyond distinctions of time, space, and person", "that which pervades the universe in all its constancy". The human body, therefore is not completely true as it changes with time, for example. There are many references, properties and explanations of truth by Hindu sages that explain varied facets of truth, such as the national motto of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>: "Satyameva jayate" (Truth alone wins), as well as "Satyam muktaye" (Truth liberates), "Satya' is 'Parahit'artham' va'unmanaso yatha'rthatvam' satyam" (Satya is the benevolent use of words and the mind for the welfare of others or in other words responsibilities is truth too), "When one is firmly established in speaking truth, the fruits of action become subservient to him ( patanjali yogasutras, sutra number 2.36 ), "The face of truth is covered by a golden bowl. <i>Unveil it, O Pusan (Sun), so that I who have truth as my duty (satyadharma) may see it!</i>" (Brhadaranyaka V 15 1-4 and the brief IIsa Upanisad 15-18), Truth is superior to silence (<a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a>), etc. Combined with other words, satya acts as modifier, like "<b>ultra</b>" or "<b>highest</b>," or more literally "<b>truest</b>," connoting <b>purity and excellence</b>. For example, satyaloka is the "highest heaven' and Satya Yuga is the "golden age" or best of the four cyclical cosmic ages in Hinduism, and so on.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Avicenna">Avicenna</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Avicenna">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sina) defined truth in his work <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kitab_Al-Shifa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitab Al-Shifa (page does not exist)">Kitab Al-Shifa</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i>, Book I, Chapter 8, as:</p>
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<p><i>"What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup></i></p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> elaborated on his definition of truth later in Book VIII, Chapter 6:</p>
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<p><i>"The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it."<sup id="cite_ref-Aertsen_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aertsen-62">[62]</a></sup></i></p>
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<p>However, this definition is merely a rendering of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> Latin translation of the work by Simone van Riet.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> A modern translation of the original Arabic text states:</p>
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<p><i>"Truth is also said of the veridical belief in the existence [of something]".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup></i></p>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Aquinas">Aquinas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Aquinas">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Reevaluating Avicenna, and also Augustine and Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> stated in his <i>Disputed Questions on Truth</i>:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>A natural thing, being placed between two intellects, is called <i>true</i> insofar as it conforms to either. It is said to be true with respect to its conformity with the divine intellect insofar as it fulfills the end to which it was ordained by the divine intellect... With respect to its conformity with a human intellect, a thing is said to be true insofar as it is such as to cause a true estimate about itself.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Thus, for Aquinas, the truth of the human intellect (logical truth) is based on the truth in things (ontological truth).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> Following this, he wrote an elegant re-statement of Aristotle's view in his <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1016.htm">Summa I.16.1</a>:</p>
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<p>Veritas est adæquatio intellectus et rei.<br />
(Truth is the conformity of the intellect to the things.)</p>
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<p>Aquinas also said that real things participate in the act of being of the <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Creator God</a> who is Subsistent Being, Intelligence, and Truth. Thus, these beings possess the light of intelligibility and are knowable. These things (beings; <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>) are the foundation of the truth that is found in the human mind, when it acquires knowledge of things, first through the <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>, then through the <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">judgement</a> done by <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. For Aquinas, human <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> ("intus", within and "legere", to read) has the capability to reach the <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> of things because it has a non-material, <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> element, although some moral, educational, and other elements might interfere with its capability.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Changing_concepts_of_truth_in_the_Middle_Ages">Changing concepts of truth in the Middle Ages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Changing concepts of truth in the Middle Ages">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Firth_Green" title="Richard Firth Green">Richard Firth Green</a> examined the concept of truth in the later Middle Ages in his <i>A Crisis of Truth</i>, and concludes that roughly during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II of England</a> the very meaning of the concept changes. The idea of the oath, which was so much part and parcel of for instance <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">Romance literature</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> changes from a subjective concept to a more objective one (in <a href="/wiki/Derek_Pearsall" title="Derek Pearsall">Derek Pearsall</a>'s summary).<sup id="cite_ref-pearsall_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pearsall-68">[68]</a></sup> Whereas truth (the "trouthe" of <i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight" title="Sir Gawain and the Green Knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a></i>) was first "an ethical truth in which truth is understood to reside in persons", in Ricardian England it "transforms...into a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_truth&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Political truth (page does not exist)">political truth</a> in which truth is understood to reside in documents".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_age">Modern age</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Modern age">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kant">Kant</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Kant">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" width="220" height="317" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> endorses a definition of truth along the lines of the correspondence theory of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-60">[60]</a></sup> Kant writes in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>: "The nominal definition of truth, namely that it is the agreement of cognition with its object, is here granted and presupposed".<sup id="cite_ref-Kant-1781_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kant-1781-70">[70]</a></sup> However, Kant denies that this correspondence definition of truth provides us with a test or criterion to establish which judgements are true. Kant states in his logic lectures:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"(...) Truth, it is said, consists in the agreement of cognition with its object. In consequence of this mere nominal definition, my cognition, to count as true, is supposed to agree with its object. Now I can compare the object with my cognition, however, only <i>by cognizing it</i>. Hence my cognition is supposed to confirm itself, which is far short of being sufficient for truth. For since the object is outside me, the cognition in me, all I can ever pass judgement on is whether my cognition of the object agrees with my cognition of the object. <i>The ancients called such a circle in explanation a</i> diallelon<i>. And actually the logicians were always reproached with this mistake by the sceptics, who observed that with this definition of truth it is just as when someone makes a statement before a court and in doing so appeals to a witness with whom no one is acquainted, but who wants to establish his credibility by maintaining that the one who called him as witness is an honest man. The accusation was grounded, too. Only the solution of the indicated problem is impossible without qualification and for every man. (...)"<sup id="cite_ref-Kant-1801_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kant-1801-71">[71]</a></sup></i></p>
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<p>This passage makes use of his distinction between nominal and real definitions. A nominal definition explains the meaning of a linguistic expression. A real definition describes the essence of certain <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> and enable us to determine whether any given item falls within the definition.<sup id="cite_ref-Vanzo-Kant_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vanzo-Kant-72">[72]</a></sup> Kant holds that the definition of truth is merely nominal and, therefore, we cannot employ it to establish which judgements are true. According to Kant, the ancient skeptics were critical of the logicians for holding that, by means of a merely nominal definition of truth, they can establish which judgements are true. They were trying to do something that is "impossible without qualification and for every man".<sup id="cite_ref-Kant-1801_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kant-1801-71">[71]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Hegel">Hegel</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Hegel">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Georg_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Hegel">Georg Hegel</a> distanced his philosophy from psychology by presenting truth as being an external self-moving object instead of being related to inner, subjective thoughts. Hegel's truth is analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> of a material body in motion under the influence of its own inner force. "Truth is its own self-movement within itself."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> Teleological truth moves itself in the three-step form of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical triplicity</a> toward the final goal of perfect, final, absolute truth. According to Hegel, the progression of philosophical truth is a resolution of past oppositions into increasingly more accurate approximations of absolute truth. <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Moritz_Chalyb%C3%A4us" title="Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus">Chalybäus</a> used the terms "<a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">thesis</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">antithesis</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">synthesis</a>" to describe Hegel's dialectical triplicity. The "thesis" consists of an incomplete historical movement. To resolve the incompletion, an "antithesis" occurs which opposes the "thesis." In turn, the "synthesis" appears when the "thesis" and "antithesis" become <a href="/wiki/Aufheben" title="Aufheben">reconciled</a> and a higher level of truth is obtained. This "synthesis" thereby becomes a "thesis," which will again necessitate an "antithesis," requiring a new "synthesis" until a final state is reached as the result of reason's historical movement. History is the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute Spirit</a> moving toward a goal. This historical progression will finally conclude itself when the Absolute Spirit understands its own infinite self at the very end of history. Absolute Spirit will then be the complete expression of an infinite <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: Schopenhauer">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>For <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgment</a> is a combination or separation of two or more <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>. If a judgment is to be an expression of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, it must have a <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">sufficient reason</a> or ground by which the judgment could be called true. <i>Truth is the reference of a judgment to something different from itself which is its sufficient reason (ground)</i>. Judgments can have material, formal, transcendental, or metalogical truth. A judgment has <i>material</i> truth if its concepts are based on intuitive perceptions that are generated from sensations. If a judgment has its reason (ground) in another judgment, its truth is called logical or <i>formal</i>. If a judgment, of, for example, pure mathematics or pure science, is based on the forms (space, time, causality) of intuitive, empirical knowledge, then the judgment has <i>transcendental</i> truth.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Kierkegaard">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>When <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, as his character <i>Johannes Climacus</i>, ends his writings: <i>My thesis was, subjectivity, heartfelt is the truth</i>, he does not advocate for <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a> in its extreme form (the theory that something is true simply because one believes it to be so), but rather that the objective approach to matters of personal truth cannot shed any light upon that which is most essential to a person's life. Objective truths are concerned with the facts of a person's being, while subjective truths are concerned with a person's way of being. Kierkegaard agrees that objective truths for the study of subjects like mathematics, science, and history are relevant and necessary, but argues that objective truths do not shed any light on a person's inner relationship to existence. At best, these truths can only provide a severely narrowed perspective that has little to do with one's actual experience of life.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup></p>
<p>While objective truths are final and static, subjective truths are continuing and dynamic. The truth of one's existence is a living, inward, and subjective experience that is always in the process of becoming. The values, morals, and spiritual approaches a person adopts, while not denying the existence of objective truths of those beliefs, can only become truly known when they have been inwardly appropriated through subjective experience. Thus, Kierkegaard criticizes all systematic philosophies which attempt to know life or the truth of existence via theories and objective knowledge about reality. As Kierkegaard claims, human truth is something that is continually occurring, and a human being cannot find truth separate from the subjective experience of one's own existing, defined by the values and fundamental essence that consist of one's way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Nietzsche">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> believed the search for truth, or 'the will to truth', was a consequence of the <i><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a></i> of philosophers. He thought that truth should be used as long as it promoted life and the <i>will to power</i>, and he thought untruth was better than truth if it had this life enhancement as a consequence. As he wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil" title="Beyond Good and Evil">Beyond Good and Evil</a></i>, "The falseness of a judgment is to us not necessarily an objection to a judgment... The question is to what extent it is life-advancing, life-preserving, species-preserving, perhaps even species-breeding..." (aphorism 4). He proposed the <i>will to power</i> as a truth only because, according to him, it was the most life-affirming and sincere perspective one could have.</p>
<p>Robert Wicks discusses Nietzsche's basic view of truth as follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"(...) Some scholars regard Nietzsche's 1873 unpublished essay, "On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense" ("Über Wahrheit und Lüge im außermoralischen Sinn") as a keystone in his thought. In this essay, Nietzsche rejects the idea of universal constants, and claims that what we call "truth" is only "a mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms." His view at this time is that arbitrariness completely prevails within human experience: concepts originate via the very artistic transference of nerve stimuli into images; "truth" is nothing more than the invention of fixed conventions for merely practical purposes, especially those of repose, security and consistence. (...)"<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Whitehead">Whitehead</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Whitehead">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, a British mathematician who became an American philosopher, said: "There are no whole truths; all truths are half-truths. It is trying to treat them as whole truths that plays the devil".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup></p>
<p>The logical progression or connection of this line of thought is to conclude that truth can lie, since <a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">half-truths</a> are deceptive and may lead to a false conclusion.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nishida">Nishida</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Nishida">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a>, "knowledge of things in the world begins with the differentiation of unitary consciousness into knower and known and ends with self and things becoming one again. Such unification takes form not only in knowing but in the valuing (of truth) that directs knowing, the willing that directs action, and the feeling or emotive reach that directs sensing."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Fromm">Fromm</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: Fromm">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> finds that trying to discuss truth as "absolute truth" is sterile and that emphasis ought to be placed on "optimal truth". He considers truth as stemming from the survival imperative of grasping one's environment physically and intellectually, whereby young children instinctively seek truth so as to orient themselves in "a strange and powerful world". The accuracy of their perceived approximation of the truth will therefore have direct consequences on their ability to deal with their environment. Fromm can be understood to define truth as a functional approximation of reality. His vision of optimal truth is described partly in "Man from Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics" (1947), from which excerpts are included below.</p>
<dl>
<dd>the dichotomy between 'absolute = perfect' and 'relative = imperfect' has been superseded in all fields of scientific thought, where "it is generally recognized that there is no absolute truth but nevertheless that there are objectively valid laws and principles".</dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>In that respect, "a scientifically or rationally valid statement means that the power of reason is applied to all the available data of observation without any of them being suppressed or falsified for the sake of a desired result". The history of science is "a history of inadequate and incomplete statements, and every new insight makes possible the recognition of the inadequacies of previous propositions and offers a springboard for creating a more adequate formulation."</dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>As a result "the history of thought is the history of an ever-increasing approximation to the truth. Scientific knowledge is not absolute but optimal; it contains the optimum of truth attainable in a given historical period." Fromm furthermore notes that "different cultures have emphasized various aspects of the truth" and that increasing interaction between cultures allows for these aspects to reconcile and integrate, increasing further the approximation to the truth.</dd>
</dl>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Foucault">Foucault</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Foucault">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:What-is-truth02.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/What-is-truth02.jpg/220px-What-is-truth02.jpg" width="220" height="289" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/What-is-truth02.jpg/330px-What-is-truth02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/What-is-truth02.jpg/440px-What-is-truth02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="900" /></a>
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<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:What-is-truth02.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<i><a href="/wiki/John_18:38" title="John 18:38">Quod Est Veritas?</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Christ" title="Christ">Christ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pilate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilate">Pilate</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ge" title="Nikolai Ge">Nikolai Ge</a>.</div>
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<p>Truth, says <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, is problematic when any attempt is made to see truth as an "objective" quality. He prefers not to use the term truth itself but "Regimes of Truth". In his historical investigations he found truth to be something that was itself a part of, or embedded within, a given power structure. Thus Foucault's view shares much in common with the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Truth#Nietzsche" title="Truth">Nietzsche</a>. Truth for Foucault is also something that shifts through various <a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">episteme</a> throughout history.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Baudrillard">Baudrillard</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section: Baudrillard">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a> considered truth to be largely simulated, that is pretending to have something, as opposed to dissimulation, pretending to not have something. He took his cue from <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasts</a> who he claims knew that images of God demonstrated that God did not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Baudrillard_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baudrillard-81">[81]</a></sup> Baudrillard wrote in "Precession of the Simulacra":</p>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>The <a href="/wiki/Simulacrum" title="Simulacrum">simulacrum</a> is never that which conceals the truth—it is the truth which conceals that there is none. The simulacrum is true.</dd>
<dd>—Ecclesiastes<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup></dd>
</dl>
</dd>
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<p>Some examples of simulacra that Baudrillard cited were: that prisons simulate the "truth" that society is free; scandals (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate</a>) simulate that corruption is corrected; Disney simulates that the U.S. itself is an adult place. One must remember that though such examples seem extreme, such extremity is an important part of Baudrillard's theory. For a less extreme example, consider how movies usually end with the bad being punished, humiliated, or otherwise failing, thus affirming for viewers the concept that the good end happily and the bad unhappily, a narrative which implies that the status quo and established power structures are largely legitimate.<sup id="cite_ref-Baudrillard_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baudrillard-81">[81]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_medicine_and_psychiatry">In medicine and psychiatry</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37" title="Edit section: In medicine and psychiatry">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There is controversy as to the truth value of a proposition made in <a href="/wiki/Bad_faith" title="Bad faith">bad faith</a> self-deception, such as when a <a href="/wiki/Hypochondriac" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypochondriac">hypochondriac</a> has a complaint with no physical symptom.<sup id="cite_ref-PMREN_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMREN-84">[84]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_religion:_omniscience">In religion: omniscience</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38" title="Edit section: In religion: omniscience">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a></div>
<p>In a religious context, perfect knowledge of all truth about all things (omniscience) is regarded by some <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religions</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Omniscience#Omniscience_in_Buddhist_India" title="Omniscience">Buddhism</a> (source?) and the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>), as an attribute of a <a href="/wiki/Divine_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine being">divine being</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> In the Abrahamic view, <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> can exercise <a href="/wiki/Divine_judgment" title="Divine judgment">divine judgment</a>, judging the dead on the basis of perfect knowledge of their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
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<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png/32px-Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png" width="32" height="24" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png/48px-Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png/64px-Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Thinking" title="Portal:Thinking">Thinking portal</a></td>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="Book icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" width="30" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></td>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Book:Epistemology" title="Book:Epistemology">Book: Epistemology</a></li>
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<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-3" style="-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">Aletheia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asha" title="Asha">Asha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Degrees of truth">Degrees of truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disposition" title="Disposition">Disposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">Imagination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Independence_(mathematical_logic)" title="Independence (mathematical logic)">Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)" title="Interpretation (logic)">Interpretation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Invariance_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invariance (mathematics)">Invariance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">Lie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara fallacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/On_truth_and_lies_in_a_nonmoral_sense" class="mw-redirect" title="On truth and lies in a nonmoral sense">On truth and lies in a nonmoral sense</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_symbol_system" title="Physical symbol system">Physical symbol system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proof_(truth)" title="Proof (truth)">Proof</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revision_theory" title="Revision theory">Revision theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth_(religious)" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth (religious)">Religious truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slingshot_argument" title="Slingshot argument">Slingshot argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical independence">Statistical independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">Tautology (logic)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tautology_(rhetoric)" title="Tautology (rhetoric)">Tautology (rhetoric)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth_prevails" title="Truth prevails">Truth prevails</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truthlikeness" class="mw-redirect" title="Truthlikeness">Truthlikeness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_proposition" title="Unity of the proposition">Unity of the proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verisimilitude" title="Verisimilitude">Verisimilitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/What_is_truth%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What is truth?">What is truth?</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_theorists">Major theorists</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40" title="Edit section: Major theorists">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-4" style="-moz-column-count: 4; -webkit-column-count: 4; column-count: 4;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">J.L. Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brand_Blanshard" title="Brand Blanshard">Brand Blanshard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hartry_Field" title="Hartry Field">Hartry Field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Horwich" title="Paul Horwich">Paul Horwich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Joachim" title="Harold Joachim">Harold Joachim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/W.V._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W.V. Quine">W.V. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P.F._Strawson" class="mw-redirect" title="P.F. Strawson">P.F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Merriam-Webster-def-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m-w.com/dictionary/truth">truth</a>, 2005</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://aphelis.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Martin-Heidegger-On-the-Essence-of-Truth.pdf">http://aphelis.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Martin-Heidegger-On-the-Essence-of-Truth.pdf</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ontology.co/heidegger-aletheia.htm">http://www.ontology.co/heidegger-aletheia.htm</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.peirce.org/writings/p119.html">http://www.peirce.org/writings/p119.html</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PUP32014-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PUP32014_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Alexis G. Burgess and John P. Burgess (March 20, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9460.html"><i>Truth</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(hardcover)</span> (1st ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691144016" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691144016">978-0691144016</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 4,</span> 2014</span>. <q>a concise introduction to current philosophical debates about truth</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.au=Alexis+G.+Burgess+and+John+P.+Burgess&amp;rft.btitle=Truth&amp;rft.date=2011-03-20&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F9460.html&amp;rft.isbn=978-0691144016&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf8KETLiKXMC&amp;pg=PA201&amp;lpg=PA201&amp;dq=%22even+we+knowers+of+today%22&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=7qSyh9BPvR&amp;sig=01b2vnYxp5qKardifUhRjuQuGdE&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CCIQ6AEwAWoVChMIiMOJzafSxwIVQ2g-Ch2Pnw1h#v=onepage&amp;q=%22even%20we%20knowers%20of%20today%22&amp;f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf8KETLiKXMC&amp;pg=PA201&amp;lpg=PA201&amp;dq=%22even+we+knowers+of+today%22&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=7qSyh9BPvR&amp;sig=01b2vnYxp5qKardifUhRjuQuGdE&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CCIQ6AEwAWoVChMIiMOJzafSxwIVQ2g-Ch2Pnw1h#v=onepage&amp;q=%22even%20we%20knowers%20of%20today%22&amp;f=false</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wMzu8j4D1SYC&amp;pg=PA112&amp;lpg=PA112&amp;dq=%22even+we+knowers+of+today%22&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=ZuPBi79vPv&amp;sig=L6iUmuWkGXbXrV3h-DWvkQyFjyE&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIiMOJzafSxwIVQ2g-Ch2Pnw1h#v=onepage&amp;q=god%20is%20truth&amp;f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=wMzu8j4D1SYC&amp;pg=PA112&amp;lpg=PA112&amp;dq=%22even+we+knowers+of+today%22&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=ZuPBi79vPv&amp;sig=L6iUmuWkGXbXrV3h-DWvkQyFjyE&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIiMOJzafSxwIVQ2g-Ch2Pnw1h#v=onepage&amp;q=god%20is%20truth&amp;f=false</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a> for the <i>-ww-</i>&#160;: <i>-gg-</i> alternation.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Truth_from_Online_Etymology-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Truth_from_Online_Etymology_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Etymology, Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/">"Online Etymology"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.aufirst=Online&amp;rft.aulast=Etymology&amp;rft.btitle=Online+Etymology&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northvegr.org/zoega/h442.php">A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic</a></i>, Geir T. Zoëga (1910), Northvegr.org</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a> on <i>true</i> has "Steadfast in adherence to a commander or friend, to a principle or cause, to one's promises, faith, etc.; firm in allegiance; faithful, loyal, constant, trusty; Honest, honourable, upright, virtuous, trustworthy; free from deceit, sincere, truthful " besides "Conformity with fact; agreement with reality; accuracy, correctness, verity; Consistent with fact; agreeing with the reality; representing the thing as it is; Real, genuine; rightly answering to the description; properly so called; not counterfeit, spurious, or imaginary."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-EPT-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Supp., "Truth", auth: Michael Williams, p572-573 (Macmillan, 1996)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), <i>Truth</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Includes papers by James, Ramsey, Russell, Tarski, and more recent work.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hale, Bob; Wright, Crispin, eds. (1999). "A Companion to the Philosophy of Language". <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Language</i>. pp.&#160;309–330. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fb.9780631213260.1999.00015.x">10.1111/b.9780631213260.1999.00015.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631213260" title="Special:BookSources/9780631213260">9780631213260</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.atitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Language&amp;rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Language&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fb.9780631213260.1999.00015.x&amp;rft.isbn=9780631213260&amp;rft.pages=309-330&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horwich, Paul, <i>Truth</i>, (2nd edition, 1988),</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Field, Hartry, <i>Truth and the Absence of Fact</i> (2001).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, p223 (Macmillan, 1969) Prior uses <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>'s wording in defining correspondence theory. According to Prior, Russell was substantially responsible for helping to make correspondence theory widely known under this name.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223-224 (Macmillan, 1969)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, p224, Macmillan, 1969.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence">"Correspondence Theory of Truth", in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/index.html">Summa</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1.htm">I</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1016.htm">Q.16</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1016.htm#article2">A.2</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence">"Correspondence Theory of Truth", in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, (citing De Veritate Q.1, A.1&amp;3; cf. Summa Theologiae Q.16).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.,</i> Bradley, F.H., "On Truth and Copying", in Blackburn, <i>et al.</i> (eds., 1999),<i>Truth</i>, 31-45.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223 <i>ff</i>. Macmillan, 1969. See especially, section on "Moore's Correspondence Theory", 225-226, "Russell's Correspondence Theory", 226-227, "Remsey and Later Wittgenstein", 228-229, "Tarski's Semantic Theory", 230-231.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, p. 223 <i>ff</i>. Macmillan, 1969. See the section on "Tarski's Semantic Theory", 230-231.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, for instance, assembled a controversial but quite coherent system in the early 19th century, whose validity and usefulness continues to be debated even today. Similarly, the systems of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a> are characteristic systems that are internally coherent but controversial in terms of their utility and validity.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p130-131 (Macmillan, 1969)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p131-133, <i>see</i> esp., section on "Epistemological assumptions" (Macmillan, 1969)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p130</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">May, Todd, 1993, Between Genealogy and Epistemology: Psychology, politics in the thought of Michel Foucault' with reference to Althusser and Balibar, 1970</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.</i>, Habermas, Jürgen, <i>Knowledge and Human Interests</i> (English translation, 1972).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.</i>, Habermas, Jürgen, <i>Knowledge and Human Interests</i> (English translation, 1972), esp. PART III, pp 187 <i>ff</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rescher, Nicholas, <i>Pluralism: Against the Demand for Consensus</i> (1995).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.5, "Pragmatic Theory of Truth", 427 (Macmillan, 1969).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C.S. (1901), "Truth and Falsity and Error" (in part), pp. 716–720 in <a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin" title="James Mark Baldwin">James Mark Baldwin</a>, ed., <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, v. 2. Peirce's section is entitled "<i>Logical</i>", beginning on p. 718, column 1, and ending on p. 720 with the initials "(C.S.P.)", see Google Books <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8YAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA718">Eprint</a>. Reprinted, <i><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography#CP" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Collected Papers</a></i> v. 5, pp. 565–573.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WJP-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WJP_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WJP_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James, William, <i>The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism',</i> (1909).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Dewey, John", auth <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a>, p383 (Macmillan, 1969)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sahakian, W.S. &amp; Sahakian, M.L., Ideas of the Great Philosophers, NEW YORK: Barnes &amp; Noble, 1966, LCCCN 66-23155</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FeynmanThe-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FeynmanThe_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FeynmanThe_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Feynman, The Character of Physical Law, NEW YORK: Random House, 1994, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679601279" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-679-60127-9</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feynman, <i>The Character of Physical Law</i>, p. 150.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), <i>Truth</i> in the Introductory section of the book.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirkham" title="Richard Kirkham">Richard Kirkham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Truth:_A_Critical_Introduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction">Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction</a>, MIT Press, 1992.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. L. Austin, "How to Do Things With Words". Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.6: <i>Performative Theory of Truth</i>, auth: Gertrude Ezorsky, p. 88 (Macmillan, 1969)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramsey, F.P. (1927), "Facts and Propositions", Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume 7, 153–170. Reprinted, pp. 34–51 in F.P. Ramsey, Philosophical Papers, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1990</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Le Morvan, Pierre. (2004) "Ramsey on Truth and Truth on Ramsey", <i>The British Journal for the History of Philosophy</i> 12(4), pp. 705-718.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Truth and Objectivity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Truth as One and Many (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/surveys/results.pl?affil=All+respondents&amp;areas0=0&amp;areas_max=1&amp;grain=medium">"The PhilPapers Surveys - Preliminary Survey results"</a>. <i>The PhilPapers Surveys</i>. Philpapers.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.atitle=The+PhilPapers+Surveys+-+Preliminary+Survey+results&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Fsurveys%2Fresults.pl%3Faffil%3DAll%2Brespondents%26areas0%3D0%26areas_max%3D1%26grain%3Dmedium&amp;rft.jtitle=The+PhilPapers+Surveys&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Penelope Maddy; <i>Realism in Mathematics</i>; Series: Clarendon Paperbacks; Paperback: 216 pages; Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA (October 15, 1992); <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/019824035X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 019824035X</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliott Mendelson; <i>Introduction to Mathematical Logic</i>; Series: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications; Hardcover: 469 pages; Publisher: Chapman and Hall/CRC; 5 edition (August 11, 2009); <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1584888768" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1584888768</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.,</i> Chaitin, Gregory L., <i>The Limits of Mathematics</i> (1997) esp. 89 <i>ff</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Davis. "Hilbert's Tenth Problem is Unsolvable." <i>American Mathematical Monthly</i> 80, pp. 233-269, 1973</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yandell, Benjamin H.. <i>The Honors Class. Hilbert's Problems and Their Solvers</i> (2002).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chaitin, Gregory L., <i>The Limits of Mathematics</i> (1997) 1-28, 89 <i>ff</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kripke, Saul. "Outline of a Theory of Truth", Journal of Philosophy, 72 (1975), 690-716</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith Simmons, <i>Universality and the Liar: An Essay on Truth and the Diagonal Argument</i>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1993</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gupta and Belnap (1993).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-StanfordCorr-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David, Marion (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/#1">"Correspondence Theory of Truth"</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West", <i>Monthly Renaissance</i> <b>17</b> (11).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Aertsen-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aertsen_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan A. Aertsen (1988), <i>Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought</i>, p. 152. BRILL, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004084517" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-08451-7</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Simone van Riet. <i>Liber de philosophia prima, sive Scientia divina</i> (in Latin). p.&#160;413.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.au=Simone+van+Riet&amp;rft.btitle=Liber+de+philosophia+prima%2C+sive+Scientia+divina&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=413&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><i>Avicenna: The Metaphysics of The Healing</i>. Michael E. Marmura. Brigham Young University Press. 2005. p.&#160;284. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-934893-77-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-934893-77-2">0-934893-77-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.btitle=Avicenna%3A+The+Metaphysics+of+The+Healing&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-934893-77-2&amp;rft.pages=284&amp;rft.pub=Brigham+Young+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Disputed Questions on Truth</i>, 1, 2, c, reply to Obj. 1. Trans. Mulligan, McGlynn, Schmidt, <i>Truth</i>, vol. I, pp. 10-12.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Veritas supra ens fundatur" (Truth is founded on being). <i>Disputed Questions on Truth</i>, 10, 2, reply to Obj. 3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rock, Catherine A. (2006). "Forsworn and Fordone: Arcite as Oath-Breaker in the "Knight's Tale<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chaucer_Review" title="The Chaucer Review">The Chaucer Review</a></i> <b>40</b> (4): 416–32. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1353%2Fcr.2006.0009">10.1353/cr.2006.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/25094334">25094334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.atitle=Forsworn+and+Fordone%3A+Arcite+as+Oath-Breaker+in+the+%22Knight%27s+Tale%22&amp;rft.aufirst=Catherine+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Rock&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25094334&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcr.2006.0009&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Chaucer+Review&amp;rft.pages=416-32&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=40" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-pearsall-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pearsall_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Pearsall, Derek (2004). "Medieval Literature and Historical Enquiry". <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Review" title="Modern Language Review">Modern Language Review</a></i> <b>99</b> (4): xxxi–xlii. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F3738608">10.2307/3738608</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3738608">3738608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.atitle=Medieval+Literature+and+Historical+Enquiry&amp;rft.aufirst=Derek&amp;rft.aulast=Pearsall&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3738608&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3738608&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Modern+Language+Review&amp;rft.pages=xxxi-xlii&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=99" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Fowler, Elizabeth (2003). "Rev. of Green, <i>A Crisis of Truth</i>". <i><a href="/wiki/Speculum_(journal)" title="Speculum (journal)">Speculum</a></i> <b>78</b> (1): 179–82. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0038713400099310">10.1017/S0038713400099310</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3301477">3301477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.atitle=Rev.+of+Green%2C+A+Crisis+of+Truth&amp;rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&amp;rft.aulast=Fowler&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3301477&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0038713400099310&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Speculum&amp;rft.pages=179-82&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=78" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Kant-1781-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kant-1781_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel (1781/1787), <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. Translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), A58/B82.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Kant-1801-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kant-1801_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kant-1801_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel (1801), <i>The Jäsche Logic</i>, in <i>Lectures on Logic</i>. Translated and edited by J. Michael Young (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 557-558.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Vanzo-Kant-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vanzo-Kant_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberto Vanzo, "Kant on the Nominal Definition of Truth", <i>Kant-Studien</i>, 101 (2010), pp. 147-166.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Die Wahrheit ist die Bewegung ihrer an ihr selbst." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, Preface, ¶ 48</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason</i>, §§ 29–33</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kierkegaard, Søren. <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watts, Michael. <i>Kierkegaard</i>, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Wicks, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/#EarWri187187">Friedrich Nietzsche - Early Writings: 1872-1876</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred North Whitehead, <i>Dialogues</i>, 1954: Prologue.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Maraldo, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nishida-kitaro/#2.2">Nishida Kitarô - Self-Awareness</a>, in: <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foucault, M. "The Order of Things", London: Vintage Books, 1970 (1966)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Baudrillard-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baudrillard_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baudrillard_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean Baudrillard. Simulacra and Simulation. Michigan: Michigan University Press, 1994.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baudrillard, Jean. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Baudrillard/Baudrillard_Simulacra.html">"Simulacra and Simulations", in <i>Selected Writings</i></a>, ed. <a href="/wiki/Mark_Poster" title="Mark Poster">Mark Poster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, 1988; 166 <i>ff</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baudrillard's attribution of this quote to <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> is deliberately fictional. "Baudrillard attributes this quote to Ecclesiastes. However, the quote is a fabrication (see Jean Baudrillard. Cool Memories III, 1991-95. London: Verso, 1997). Editor's note: In Fragments: Conversations With François L'Yvonnet. New York: Routledge, 2004:11, Baudrillard acknowledges this 'Borges-like' fabrication." Cited in footnote #4 in Smith, Richard G., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol2_1/smith.htm#_edn4">"Lights, Camera, Action: Baudrillard and the Performance of Representations"</a>, International Journal of Baudrillard Studies, Volume 2, Number 1 (January 2005)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PMREN-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PMREN_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Absent a lesion or a physiological disturbance to account readily for the complaint, the complaint was likely to be regarded as male fide", Post-Modern Reflections on the Ethics of Naming, The Ethics of Diagnosis Philosophy and Medicine, 1992, Volume 40, Section V, 275-300, George Khushf, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/r6735871m3782056/">springerlink.com</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06612a.htm#IID">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Nature and Attributes of God"</a>. Newadvent.org. 1909-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.btitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Nature+and+Attributes+of+God&amp;rft.date=1909-09-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F06612a.htm%23IID&amp;rft.pub=Newadvent.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Particular Judgment"</a>. Newadvent.org. 1910-10-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth&amp;rft.btitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Particular+Judgment&amp;rft.date=1910-10-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F08550a.htm&amp;rft.pub=Newadvent.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a> thought that there was a last judgement by the gods similar in many ways to the Abrahamic one, but instead of omniscient knowledge of truth, the life of the dead person was evaluated by <a href="/wiki/Weighing_of_the_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Weighing of the Heart">Weighing of the Heart</a>, which would record good and bad deeds.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, "The Categories", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_P._Cooke&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Harold P. Cooke (page does not exist)">Harold P. Cooke</a> (trans.), pp.&#160;1–109 in <i>Aristotle, Volume&#160;1</i>, <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinemann_(book_publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinemann (book publisher)">William Heinemann</a>, London, UK, 1938.</li>
<li>Aristotle, "On Interpretation", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_P._Cooke&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Harold P. Cooke (page does not exist)">Harold P. Cooke</a> (trans.), pp.&#160;111–179 in <i>Aristotle, Volume&#160;1</i>, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.</li>
<li>Aristotle, "<a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a>", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Tredennick&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh Tredennick (page does not exist)">Hugh Tredennick</a> (trans.), pp.&#160;181–531 in <i>Aristotle, Volume&#160;1</i>, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.</li>
<li>Aristotle, "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a>" (<i>De Anima</i>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._S._Hett&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="W. S. Hett (page does not exist)">W. S. Hett</a> (trans.), pp.&#160;1–203 in <i>Aristotle, Volume&#160;8</i>, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1936.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Audi, Robert</a> (ed., 1999), <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. Cited as CDP.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin" title="James Mark Baldwin">Baldwin, James Mark</a> (ed., 1901–1905), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, 3 volumes in 4, Macmillan, New York, NY.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_A._Baylis&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles A. Baylis (page does not exist)">Baylis, Charles A.</a> (1962), "Truth", pp.&#160;321–322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=A._Cornelius_Benjamin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="A. Cornelius Benjamin (page does not exist)">Benjamin, A. Cornelius</a> (1962), "Coherence Theory of Truth", p.&#160;58 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li>
<li>Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), <i>Truth</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Includes papers by James, Ramsey, Russell, Tarski, and more recent work.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan</a> (1987), <i>Truth and Beauty. Aesthetics and Motivations in Science</i>, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=C.C._Chang&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="C.C. Chang (page does not exist)">Chang, C.C.</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=H.J._Keisler&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="H.J. Keisler (page does not exist)">Keisler, H.J.</a>, <i>Model Theory</i>, North-Holland, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1973.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a> (1995), <i>The Minimalist Program</i>, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Church, Alonzo</a> (1962a), "Name Relation, or Meaning Relation", p.&#160;204 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li>
<li>Church, Alonzo (1962b), "Truth, Semantical", p.&#160;322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li>
<li>Clifford, W.K. (1877), "The Ethics of Belief and Other Essays". (Prometheus Books, 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/w_k_clifford/ethics_of_belief.html">infidels.org</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey, John</a> (1900–1901), <i>Lectures on Ethics 1900–1901</i>, Donald F. Koch (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL.</li>
<li>Dewey, John (1932), <i>Theory of the Moral Life</i>, Part 2 of John Dewey and <a href="/wiki/James_H._Tufts" class="mw-redirect" title="James H. Tufts">James H. Tufts</a>, <i>Ethics</i>, Henry Holt and Company, New York, NY, 1908. 2nd edition, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1932. Reprinted, Arnold Isenberg (ed.), Victor Kestenbaum (pref.), Irvingtion Publishers, New York, NY, 1980.</li>
<li>Dewey, John (1938), <i>Logic: The Theory of Inquiry</i> (1938),Holt and Company, New York, NY. Reprinted, <i>John Dewey, The Later Works, 1925–1953, Volume 12: 1938</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jo_Ann_Boydston&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Jo Ann Boydston (page does not exist)">Jo Ann Boydston</a> (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL, 1986.</li>
<li>Field, Hartry (2001), <i>Truth and the Absence of Fact</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault, Michel</a> (1997), <i>Essential Works of Foucault, 1954–1984, Volume 1, Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth</i>, Paul Rabinow (ed.), Robert Hurley et al. (trans.), The New Press, New York, NY.</li>
<li>Garfield, Jay L., and Kiteley, Murray (1991), <i>Meaning and Truth: The Essential Readings in Modern Semantics</i>, Paragon House, New York, NY.</li>
<li>Gupta, Anil (2001), "Truth", in Lou Goble (ed.), <i>The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic</i>, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.</li>
<li>Gupta, Anil and <a href="/wiki/Nuel_Belnap" title="Nuel Belnap">Belnap, Nuel</a>. (1993). <i>The Revision Theory of Truth</i>. MIT Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Haack, Susan</a> (1993), <i>Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology</i>, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas, Jürgen</a> (1976), "What Is Universal Pragmatics?", 1st published, "Was heißt Universalpragmatik?", <i>Sprachpragmatik und Philosophie</i>, <a href="/wiki/Karl-Otto_Apel" title="Karl-Otto Apel">Karl-Otto Apel</a> (ed.), Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main. Reprinted, pp.&#160;1–68 in Jürgen Habermas, <i>Communication and the Evolution of Society</i>, Thomas McCarthy (trans.), Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1979.</li>
<li>Habermas, Jürgen (1990), <i>Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action</i>, Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen (trans.), Thomas McCarthy (intro.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.</li>
<li>Habermas, Jürgen (2003), <i>Truth and Justification</i>, Barbara Fultner (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Hegel">Hegel, Georg</a>, (1977), <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198245971" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-824597-1</a>.</li>
<li>Horwich, Paul, (1988), <i>Truth</i>, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James, William</a> (1904), <i>A World of Pure Experience</i>.</li>
<li>James, William (1907), <i>Pragmatism, A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, Popular Lectures on Philosophy</i>, Longmans, Green, and Company, New York, NY.</li>
<li>James, William (1909), <i>The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism'</i>, Longmans, Green, and Company, New York, NY.</li>
<li>James, William (1912), <i>Essays in Radical Empiricism</i>. Cf. Chapt. 3, "The Thing and its Relations", pp.&#160;92–122.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant, Immanuel</a> (1800), <i>Introduction to Logic</i>. Reprinted, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kingsmill_Abbott" title="Thomas Kingsmill Abbott">Thomas Kingsmill Abbott</a> (trans.), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dennis_Sweet&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dennis Sweet (page does not exist)">Dennis Sweet</a> (intro.), Barnes and Noble, New York, NY, 2005.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirkham" title="Richard Kirkham">Kirkham, Richard L.</a> (1992), <i><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Truth:_A_Critical_Introduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction">Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction</a></i>, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Kneale" title="William Kneale">Kneale, W.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martha_Kneale" title="Martha Kneale">Kneale, M.</a> (1962), <i>The Development of Logic</i>, Oxford University Press, London, UK, 1962. Reprinted with corrections, 1975.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Kreitler&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Kreitler (page does not exist)">Kreitler, Hans</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shulamith_Kreitler&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Shulamith Kreitler (page does not exist)">Kreitler, Shulamith</a> (1972), <i>Psychology of the Arts</i>, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.</li>
<li>Le Morvan, Pierre (2004), "Ramsey on Truth and Truth on Ramsey", <i>British Journal for the History of Philosophy</i>, 12 (4) 2004, 705–718, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/ramsey_web.pdf">PDF</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Peirce, C.S., Bibliography</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce, C.S.</a>, <i>Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce</i>, vols. 1–6, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Weiss_(philosopher)" title="Paul Weiss (philosopher)">Paul Weiss</a> (eds.), vols. 7–8, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Burks" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur W. Burks">Arthur W. Burks</a> (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931–1935, 1958. Cited as CP vol.para.</li>
<li>Peirce, C.S. (1877), "The Fixation of Belief", <i>Popular Science Monthly</i> 12 (1877), 1–15. Reprinted (CP 5.358–387), (CE 3, 242–257), (EP 1, 109–123). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peirce.org/writings/p107.html">Eprint</a>.</li>
<li>Peirce, C.S. (1901), "Truth and Falsity and Error" (in part), pp.&#160;718–720 in J.M. Baldwin (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, vol. 2. Reprinted, CP 5.565–573.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a> (1966), <i>The Tacit Dimension</i>, Doubleday and Company, Garden City, NY.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/W.V._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W.V. Quine">Quine, W.V.</a> (1956), "Quantifiers and Propositional Attitudes", <i>Journal of Philosophy</i> 53 (1956). Reprinted, pp.&#160;185–196 in Quine (1976), <i>Ways of Paradox</i>.</li>
<li>Quine, W.V. (1976), <i>The Ways of Paradox, and Other Essays</i>, 1st edition, 1966. Revised and enlarged edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1976.</li>
<li>Quine, W.V. (1980 a), <i>From a Logical Point of View, Logico-Philosophical Essays</i>, 2nd edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.</li>
<li>Quine, W.V. (1980 b), "Reference and Modality", pp.&#160;139–159 in Quine (1980 a), <i>From a Logical Point of View</i>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rajchman" title="John Rajchman">Rajchman, John</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West, Cornel</a> (ed., 1985), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-Analytic_Philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Post-Analytic Philosophy (page does not exist)">Post-Analytic Philosophy</a></i>, Columbia University Press, New York, NY.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Plumpton_Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Plumpton Ramsey">Ramsey, F.P.</a> (1927), "Facts and Propositions", <i>Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume 7</i>, 153–170. Reprinted, pp.&#160;34–51 in F.P. Ramsey, <i>Philosophical Papers</i>, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1990.</li>
<li>Ramsey, F.P. (1990), <i>Philosophical Papers</i>, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls, John</a> (2000), <i>Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy</i>, Barbara Herman (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty, R.</a> (1979), <i>Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</i>, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1912), <i>The Problems of Philosophy</i>, 1st published 1912. Reprinted, Galaxy Book, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1959. Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1988.</li>
<li>Russell, Bertrand (1918), "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism", <i>The Monist</i>, 1918. Reprinted, pp.&#160;177–281 in <i>Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Charles_Marsh&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Charles Marsh (page does not exist)">Robert Charles Marsh</a> (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, UK, 1956. Reprinted, pp.&#160;35–155 in <i>The Philosophy of Logical Atomism</i>, <a href="/wiki/David_Pears" title="David Pears">David Pears</a> (ed.), Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1985.</li>
<li>Russell, Bertrand (1956), <i>Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Charles_Marsh&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Charles Marsh (page does not exist)">Robert Charles Marsh</a> (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, UK, 1956. Reprinted, Routledge, London, UK, 1992.</li>
<li>Russell, Bertrand (1985), <i>The Philosophy of Logical Atomism</i>, <a href="/wiki/David_Pears" title="David Pears">David Pears</a> (ed.), Open Court, La Salle, IL.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer, Arthur</a>, (1974), <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Fourfold_Root_of_the_Principle_of_Sufficient_Reason" title="On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason">On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason</a></i>, Open Court, La Salle, IL, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0875481876" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-87548-187-6</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ninian_Smart" title="Ninian Smart">Smart, Ninian</a> (1969), <i>The Religious Experience of Mankind</i>, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, NY.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Tarski, A.</a>, <i>Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics: Papers from 1923 to 1938</i>, J.H. Woodger (trans.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1956. 2nd edition, John Corcoran (ed.), Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, IN, 1983.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_F.C._Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony F.C. Wallace">Wallace, Anthony F.C.</a> (1966), <i>Religion: An Anthropological View</i>, Random House, New York, NY.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<dl>
<dt>Reference works</dt>
</dl>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Audi, Robert</a> (ed., 1999), <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. Cited as CDP.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Blackburn, Simon</a> (1996), <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996. Cited as ODP.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_D._Runes" title="Dagobert D. Runes">Runes, Dagobert D.</a> (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.</li>
<li><i>Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged</i> (1950), W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. &amp; C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA. Cited as MWU.</li>
<li><i>Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary</i> (1983), Frederick C. Mish (ed.), Merriam–Webster Inc., Springfield, MA. Cited as MWC.</li>
</ul>
</div>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/plur-tru">"Pluralist Theories of Truth"</a></li>
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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/">Coherence theory of truth</a></li>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Metaphysicians</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Truth</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">Genetic epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representative_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Representative realism">Representative realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" title="Speculative reason">Speculative reason</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Truth</strong></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alethiology" title="Alethiology">Alethiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-epistemology" title="Meta-epistemology">Meta-epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Epistemology" title="Portal:Epistemology">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Fields</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic in computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set theory</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Foundations</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Logical consequence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" title="Meaning (linguistics)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strict_implication" class="mw-redirect" title="Strict implication">Strict implication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Truth</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Validity" title="Validity">Validity</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Lists</th>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of logic articles">topics</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;">other</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">Rules of inference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">Paradoxes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">Fallacies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols" title="List of logic symbols">Logic symbols</a></li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Logic" title="Portal:Logic">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic" title="Category:Logic">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Logic">WikiProject</a>&#160;(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Logic">talk</a>)</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&amp;target=Template:Logic&amp;hidebots=0">changes</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (Empirio-criticism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Rankean historical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Russian positivism (Empiriomonism)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />
in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry (1830s)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Heisenberg uncertainty principle (1927)</a></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism#Anthropology" title="Holism">Holism in anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positivist-related debate</div>
</th>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1890s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit"><i>Methodenstreit</i> (economics)</a></li>
<li>1909–1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1960s&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1980s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a></li>
<li>1990s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science Wars</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1830&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1848&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1869&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1879&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Idealism and Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1886&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i></li>
<li>1927&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i></li>
<li>1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i></li>
<li>2001&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<li>1909&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i></li>
<li>1923&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i></li>
<li>1934&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i></li>
<li>1942&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i></li>
<li>1951&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i></li>
<li>1960&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i></li>
<li>1962&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i></li>
<li>1963&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i></li>
<li>1964&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i></li>
<li>1968&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas#Major_works" title="Jürgen Habermas">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i></li>
<li>1978&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson#Freelance_polemicist" title="E. P. Thompson">The Poverty of Theory</a></i></li>
<li>1980&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">The Scientific Image</a></i></li>
<li>1986&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/McCloskey_critique" title="McCloskey critique">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Truth</strong></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></li>
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<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4064314-1">4064314-1</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00755604">00755604</a></span></span></li>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid" title="Waarheid – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit" title="Wahrheit – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9" title="حقيقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdat" title="Verdat – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verd%C3%A1" title="Verdá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn"><a href="//gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1ete" title="Añete – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সত?য – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin-l%C3%AD" title="Chin-lí – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%99%D2%A1%D0%B8%D2%A1%D3%99%D1%82" title="Хәҡиҡәт – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="І?ціна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="І?ьціна – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="И?тина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woarheit" title="Woarheit – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina" title="Istina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Үн?н – бур?ад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Бур?ад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritat" title="Veritat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%83%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Чăнлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn"><a href="//sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chokwadi" title="Chokwadi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwirionedd" title="Gwirionedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhed" title="Sandhed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit" title="Wahrheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B5de" title="Tõde – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%AE%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Αλήθεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdad" title="Verdad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vero" title="Vero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egia_(kontzeptu_filosofikoa)" title="Egia (kontzeptu filosofikoa) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA" title="حقیقت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachchaai" title="Sachchaai – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9" title="Vérité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wierheid" title="Wierheid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADrinne" title="Fírinne – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdade" title="Verdade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真? – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><a href="//gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF" title="સત?ય – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu">ગ?જરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal"><a href="//xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Үнн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%EB%A6%AC" title="진리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B7%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ճշմարտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina" title="Istina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verajo" title="Verajo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinaagpayso" title="Kinaagpayso – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebenaran" title="Kebenaran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritate" title="Veritate – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannleikur" title="Sannleikur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verit%C3%A0" title="Verità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%AA_(%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94)" title="?מת (פילוסופיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ჭეშმ?რიტებ? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D2%A3%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D2%9B%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Мәңгілік ақикат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukweli" title="Ukweli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rast%C3%AE" title="Rastî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Чындык – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paties%C4%ABba" title="Patiesība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiesa" title="Tiesa – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waorheid" title="Waorheid – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igazs%C3%A1g_(filoz%C3%B3fia)" title="Igazság (filozófia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ви?тина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സത?യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सत?य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%87" title="حقيقه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebenaran" title="Kebenaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Үн?н – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid" title="Waarheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सत?य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真? – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Бакъдерг – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannhet" title="Sannhet – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanning" title="Sanning – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm"><a href="//nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rita%C3%A9" title="Véritaé – Nouormand" lang="nrm" hreflang="nrm">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov"><a href="//nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritate" title="Veritate – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertat" title="Vertat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haqiqat" title="Haqiqat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A" title="ਸੱਚ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl"><a href="//pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waahaid" title="Waahaid – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%86" title="سچ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuut" title="Chuut – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrit%C3%A0" title="Vrità – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawda" title="Prawda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdade" title="Verdade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adev%C4%83r" title="Adevăr – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiqap" title="Chiqap – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Правда – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="И?тина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Кырдьык – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="सत?यम? – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_v%C3%ABrteta" title="E vërteta – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth" title="Truth – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda_(filozofia)" title="Pravda (filozofia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resnica" title="Resnica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a href="//so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run" title="Run – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ڕاستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="И?тина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina" title="Istina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totuus" title="Totuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanning" title="Sanning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katotohanan" title="Katotohanan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="உண?மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Хакыйкать – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="నిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెల?గ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="ความจริง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ger%C3%A7ek" title="Gerçek – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="І?тина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%81_%D8%B3%DA%86" title="روزنام? سچ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a href="//za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenleix" title="Caenleix – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2n_l%C3%BD" title="Chân lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vraiye" title="Vraiye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamatooran" title="Kamatooran – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%AA" title="?מת – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F" title="真 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真? – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%9A" title="सा?च – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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