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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">René Descartes</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">"Descartes" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Descartes_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Descartes (disambiguation)">Descartes (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<table class="infobox biography vcard" style="width:22em">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold"><span class="fn">René Descartes</span></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/240px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" width="240" height="294" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/360px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/480px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a>
<div>Portrait after <a href="/wiki/Frans_Hals" title="Frans Hals">Frans Hals</a>, 1648<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Born</th>
<td><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1596-03-31</span>)</span>31 March 1596<br />
<span class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Descartes,_Indre-et-Loire" title="Descartes, Indre-et-Loire">La Haye en Touraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Died</th>
<td>11 February 1650<span style="display:none">(<span class="dday deathdate">1650-02-11</span>)</span> (aged&#160;53)<br />
<span class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Nationality</th>
<td class="category">French</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Education</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Prytan%C3%A9e_National_Militaire" title="Prytanée National Militaire">Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand</a><br />
(1607–1614)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Alma&#160;mater</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Poitiers" title="University of Poitiers">University of Poitiers</a><br />
(LL.B., 1616)<br />
<a href="/wiki/University_of_Franeker" title="University of Franeker">University of Franeker</a><br />
(no degree)<br />
<a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a><br />
(no degree)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Religion</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.be_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.be-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107-4">[4]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Era</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Region</th>
<td class="category">Western Philosophy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a><br />
Founder of <a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Main interests</div>
</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Notable ideas</div>
</th>
<td><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">method of doubt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Method_of_normals" title="Method of normals">method of normals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Cartesian coordinate system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">Cartesian dualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a> for the existence of God, <i><a href="/wiki/Mathesis_universalis" title="Mathesis universalis">mathesis universalis</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Folium_of_Descartes" title="Folium of Descartes">folium of Descartes</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influences</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suarez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marin_Mersenne" title="Marin Mersenne">Mersenne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Golius" title="Jacobus Golius">Golius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Beeckman" title="Isaac Beeckman">Beeckman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></div>
</li>
</ul>
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</td>
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<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influenced</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Virtually all subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavoj_Zizek" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavoj Zizek">Slavoj Zizek</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center">Signature</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Firma_Descartes.svg" class="image"><img alt="Firma Descartes.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Firma_Descartes.svg/150px-Firma_Descartes.svg.png" width="150" height="38" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Firma_Descartes.svg/225px-Firma_Descartes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Firma_Descartes.svg/300px-Firma_Descartes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="159" data-file-height="40" /></a></td>
</tr>
</table>
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<tr>
<td style="padding:0.4em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="image" title="Engraving of Descartes"><img alt="Engraving of Descartes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/125px-Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" width="125" height="186" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/188px-Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/250px-Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="575" /></a></td>
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<tr>
<td class="navbox-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.5em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="Category:René Descartes">a series</a> on</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.1em;"><strong class="selflink">René Descartes</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Doubt and certainty</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">Dream argument</a><br />
<i><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></i><br />
<a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark argument</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Causal_adequacy_principle" title="Causal adequacy principle">Causal adequacy principle</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body dichotomy</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Analytic_geometry" title="Analytic geometry">Analytic geometry</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Coordinate system</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Cartesian_circle" title="Cartesian circle">Cartesian circle</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Folium_of_Descartes" title="Folium of Descartes">Folium</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_rule_of_signs" title="Descartes' rule of signs">Rule of signs</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_diver" title="Cartesian diver">Cartesian diver</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Balloonist_theory" title="Balloonist theory">Balloonist theory</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Wax_argument" title="Wax argument">Wax argument</a><br />
<i><a href="/wiki/Mental_substance" title="Mental substance">Res cogitans</a></i>&#160;<b>·</b> <i><a href="/wiki/Res_extensa" title="Res extensa">Res extensa</a></i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">Works</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/The_World_(Descartes)" title="The World (Descartes)">The World</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/La_G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie" title="La Géométrie">La Géométrie</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Passions_of_the_Soul" title="Passions of the Soul">Passions of the Soul</a></td>
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<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">People</th>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/Christina,_Queen_of_Sweden" title="Christina, Queen of Sweden">Christina, Queen of Sweden</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Francine_Descartes" title="Francine Descartes">Francine Descartes</a></td>
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<p><b>René Descartes</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/eɪ/ long 'a' in 'base'">eɪ</span><span title="/ˌ/ secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑ?r/ 'ar' in 'bard'">ɑ?r</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> <small>French:&#160;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_French" title="Help:IPA for French">[?əne deka?t]</a></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinisation (literature)">Latinized</a>: <b>Renatus Cartesius</b>; <a href="/wiki/Adjectival_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectival form">adjectival form</a>: "Cartesian";<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> 31 March 1596&#160;– 11 February 1650) was a French <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematician</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>. Dubbed the father of modern western philosophy, much of subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> is a response to his writings,<sup id="cite_ref-Russell2004p516_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2004p516-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-11">[11]</a></sup> which are studied closely to this day. He spent about 20 years of his life in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>.</p>
<p>Descartes's <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes's influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Cartesian coordinate system</a>—allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two- or three-dimensional coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations)—was named after him. He is credited as the father of <a href="/wiki/Analytical_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical geometry">analytical geometry</a>, the bridge between algebra and geometry, used in the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinitesimal calculus">infinitesimal calculus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">analysis</a>. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>.</p>
<p>Descartes refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers, and refused to trust his own senses. He frequently set his views apart from those of his predecessors. In the opening section of the <i><a href="/wiki/Passions_of_the_Soul" title="Passions of the Soul">Passions of the Soul</a></i>, a treatise on the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> version of what are now commonly called <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>, Descartes goes so far as to assert that he will write on this topic "as if no one had written on these matters before". Many elements of his philosophy have precedents in late <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neostoicism" title="Neostoicism">revived Stoicism</a> of the 16th century, or in earlier philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>. In his <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, he differs from the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">schools</a> on two major points: First, he rejects the splitting of <a href="/wiki/Corporeal_substance" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporeal substance">corporeal substance</a> into matter and form; second, he rejects any appeal to <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">final ends</a>—divine or natural—in explaining natural phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> In his theology, he insists on the absolute freedom of God's act of creation.</p>
<p>Descartes laid the foundation for 17th-century continental <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, later advocated by <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, and opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Empiricist" class="mw-redirect" title="Empiricist">empiricist</a> school of thought consisting of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>. Leibniz, Spinoza<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> and Descartes were all well-versed in mathematics as well as philosophy, and Descartes and Leibniz contributed greatly to science as well.</p>
<p>His best known philosophical statement is "<i><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></i>" (French: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Je pense, donc je suis</i></span>; <i>I think, therefore I am</i>), found in part IV of <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a></i> (1637; written in French but with inclusion of "<i>Cogito ergo sum</i>") and §7 of part I of <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a></i> (1644; written in Latin).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Life"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Life</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Visions"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Visions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#France"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">France</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Netherlands"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Netherlands</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Sweden"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Sweden</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Death"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Death</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Philosophical_work"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophical work</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Dualism"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Dualism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Descartes.27_moral_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Descartes' moral philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Religious_beliefs"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Religious beliefs</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Historical_impact"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Historical impact</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Emancipation_from_Church_doctrine"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Emancipation from Church doctrine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Mathematical_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mathematical legacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Influence_on_Newton.27s_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on Newton's mathematics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Contemporary_reception"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary reception</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Writings"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Writings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Collected_works"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Collected works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Specific_works"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Specific works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Collected_English_translations"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Collected English translations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Translation_of_single_works"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Translation of single works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Secondary_literature"><span class="tocnumber">7.5</span> <span class="toctext">Secondary literature</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Life">Life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG/220px-Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG/330px-Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG/440px-Maison_de_Ren%C3%A9_DESCARTES_-_Jean-Charles_GUILLO.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a>
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The house where he was born in <a href="/wiki/Descartes,_Indre-et-Loire" title="Descartes, Indre-et-Loire">La Haye en Touraine</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG/220px-DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG" width="220" height="225" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG/330px-DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG/440px-DescartesGraduationRegistry.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="1845" /></a>
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Graduation registry for Descartes at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Poitiers" title="University of Poitiers">University of Poitiers</a>, 1616.</div>
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<p>Descartes was born in La Haye en Touraine (now <a href="/wiki/Descartes,_Indre-et-Loire" title="Descartes, Indre-et-Loire">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indre-et-Loire" title="Indre-et-Loire">Indre-et-Loire</a>), France, on 31 March 1596. When he was one year old, his mother Jeanne Brochard died after trying to give birth to another child who also died. His father Joachim was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Parlement_of_Brittany" title="Parlement of Brittany">Parlement of Brittany</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> René lived with his grandmother and with his great-uncle. Although the Descartes family was Roman Catholic, the Poitou region was controlled by the Protestant Huguenots.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> In 1607, late because of his fragile health, he entered the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Prytan%C3%A9e_National_Militaire" title="Prytanée National Militaire">Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand</a> at <a href="/wiki/La_Fl%C3%A8che" title="La Flèche">La Flèche</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> where he was introduced to mathematics and physics, including Galileo's work.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> After graduation in 1614, he studied two years (1615–16) at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Poitiers" title="University of Poitiers">University of Poitiers</a>, earning a <i><a href="/wiki/Baccalaur%C3%A9at" title="Baccalauréat">Baccalauréat</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Licence_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Licence (France)">Licence</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Canon_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon Law">Canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil Law</a>, in accordance with his father's wishes that he should become a lawyer.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> From there he moved to Paris.</p>
<p>In his book <i>Discourse on the Method</i>, Descartes recalls,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I entirely abandoned the study of letters. Resolving to seek no knowledge other than that of which could be found in myself or else in the great book of the world, I spent the rest of my youth traveling, visiting courts and armies, mixing with people of diverse temperaments and ranks, gathering various experiences, testing myself in the situations which fortune offered me, and at all times reflecting upon whatever came my way so as to derive some profit from it.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Given his ambition to become a professional military officer, in 1618, Descartes joined the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Army" title="Dutch States Army">Dutch States Army</a> in Breda under the command of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau,_Prince_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Nassau</a>, and undertook a formal study of <a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">military engineering</a>, as established by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a>. Descartes therefore received much encouragement in Breda to advance his knowledge of mathematics. In this way he became acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Beeckman" title="Isaac Beeckman">Isaac Beeckman</a>, principal of a <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a> school, for whom he wrote the Compendium of Music (written 1618, published 1650). Together they worked on <a href="/wiki/Free_fall" title="Free fall">free fall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catenary" title="Catenary">catenary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conic_section" title="Conic section">conic section</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluid_statics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid statics">fluid statics</a>. Both believed that it was necessary to create a method that thoroughly linked mathematics and physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Durandin_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durandin-20">[20]</a></sup></p>
<p>While in the service of the duke <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Duke_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria">Maximilian of Bavaria</a> since 1619,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Descartes was present at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_White_Mountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the White Mountain">Battle of the White Mountain</a> outside <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, in November 1620.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> He visited the labs of <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> in Prague and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> in Regensburg.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (November 2015)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Visions">Visions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Visions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Adrien_Baillet" title="Adrien Baillet">Adrien Baillet</a>, on the night of 10–11 November 1619 (<a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Day" title="St. Martin's Day">St. Martin's Day</a>), while stationed in <a href="/wiki/Neuburg_an_der_Donau" title="Neuburg an der Donau">Neuburg an der Donau</a>, Descartes shut himself in a room with an "oven" (probably a <i>Kachelofen</i> or <a href="/wiki/Masonry_heater" title="Masonry heater">masonry heater</a>) to escape the cold. While within, he had three visions and believed that a divine spirit revealed to him a new philosophy. Upon exiting he had formulated <a href="/wiki/Analytical_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical geometry">analytical geometry</a> and the idea of applying the mathematical method to philosophy. He concluded from these visions that the pursuit of science would prove to be, for him, the pursuit of true wisdom and a central part of his life's work.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Descartes also saw very clearly that all truths were linked with one another, so that finding a fundamental truth and proceeding with logic would open the way to all science. This basic truth, Descartes found quite soon: his famous "<a href="/wiki/I_think_therefore_I_am" class="mw-redirect" title="I think therefore I am">I think therefore I am</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Durandin_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durandin-20">[20]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="France">France</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: France">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In 1620 Descartes left the army. He visited <a href="/wiki/Basilica_della_Santa_Casa" title="Basilica della Santa Casa">Basilica della Santa Casa</a> in Loreto, then visited various countries before returning to France, and during the next few years spent time in Paris. It was there that he composed his first essay on method: <i>Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii</i> (<a href="/wiki/Rules_for_the_Direction_of_the_Mind" title="Rules for the Direction of the Mind">Rules for the Direction of the Mind</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Durandin_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durandin-20">[20]</a></sup> He arrived in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">La Haye</a> in 1623, selling all of his property to invest in <a href="/wiki/Bond_(finance)" title="Bond (finance)">bonds</a>, which provided a comfortable income for the rest of his life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Descartes was present at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_La_Rochelle" title="Siege of La Rochelle">siege of La Rochelle</a> by Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Armand_Jean_du_Plessis,_Cardinal_Richelieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu">Richelieu</a> in 1627.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the fall of the same year, in the residence of the papal nuncio <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Francesco_Guidi_di_Bagno" title="Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno">Guidi di Bagno</a>, where he came with <a href="/wiki/Mersenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Mersenne">Mersenne</a> and many other scholars to listen to a lecture given by the alchemist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_de_Villiers&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicolas de Villiers (page does not exist)">Monsieur de Chandoux</a> on the principles of a supposed new philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> Cardinal <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9rulle" title="Bérulle">Bérulle</a> urged him to write an exposition of his own new philosophy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Netherlands">Netherlands</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Netherlands">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Westermarkt_6,_Descarteshuis_(links).JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Westermarkt_6%2C_Descarteshuis_%28links%29.JPG/220px-Westermarkt_6%2C_Descarteshuis_%28links%29.JPG" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Westermarkt_6%2C_Descarteshuis_%28links%29.JPG/330px-Westermarkt_6%2C_Descarteshuis_%28links%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Westermarkt_6%2C_Descarteshuis_%28links%29.JPG/440px-Westermarkt_6%2C_Descarteshuis_%28links%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a>
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In <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, Descartes lived on Westermarkt 6 (Descarteshuis, on the left).</div>
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<p>Descartes returned to the Dutch Republic in 1628. In April 1629 he joined the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Franeker" title="University of Franeker">University of Franeker</a>, studying under <a href="/wiki/Metius" title="Metius">Metius</a>, living either with a Catholic family, or renting the <a href="/wiki/Sjaerdemaslot" title="Sjaerdemaslot">Sjaerdemaslot</a>, where he invited in vain a French cook and an optician.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The next year, under the name "Poitevin", he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> to study mathematics with <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Golius" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob Golius">Jacob Golius</a>, who confronted him with <a href="/wiki/Pappus%27s_hexagon_theorem" title="Pappus's hexagon theorem">Pappus's hexagon theorem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> with <a href="/wiki/Martin_van_den_Hove" title="Martin van den Hove">Martin Hortensius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> In October 1630 he had a falling-out with Beeckman, whom he accused of plagiarizing some of his ideas. In <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, he had a relationship with a servant girl, Helena Jans van der Strom, with whom he had a daughter, <a href="/wiki/Francine_Descartes" title="Francine Descartes">Francine</a>, who was born in 1635 in <a href="/wiki/Deventer" title="Deventer">Deventer</a>, at which time Descartes taught at the <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_University" title="Utrecht University">Utrecht University</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike many moralists of the time, Descartes was not devoid of passions but rather defended them; he wept upon Francine's death in 1640.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> "Descartes said that he did not believe that one must refrain from tears to prove oneself a man." <a href="/wiki/Russell_Shorto" title="Russell Shorto">Russell Shorto</a> postulated that the experience of fatherhood and losing a child formed a turning point in Descartes' work, changing its focus from medicine to a quest for universal answers.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></p>
<p>Despite frequent moves<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> he wrote all his major work during his 20+ years in the Netherlands, where he managed to revolutionize mathematics and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> In 1633, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> was condemned by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, and Descartes abandoned plans to publish <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_(Descartes)" title="The World (Descartes)">Treatise on the World</a></i>, his work of the previous four years. Nevertheless, in 1637 he published part of this work in three essays: <i>Les Météores</i> (The Meteors), <i><a href="/wiki/Dioptrique" title="Dioptrique">La Dioptrique</a></i> (Dioptrics) and <i>La Géométrie</i> (Geometry), preceded by an introduction, his famous <i>Discours de la méthode</i> (Discourse on the Method). In it Descartes lays out four rules of thought, meant to ensure that our knowledge rests upon a firm foundation.</p>
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<p>The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of doubt.</p>
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René Descartes (right) with <a href="/wiki/Christina,_Queen_of_Sweden" title="Christina, Queen of Sweden">Queen Christina of Sweden</a> (left).</div>
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<i>Principia philosophiae</i>, 1644</div>
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<p>Descartes continued to publish works concerning both mathematics and philosophy for the rest of his life. In 1641 he published a metaphysics work, <i>Meditationes de Prima Philosophia</i> (Meditations on First Philosophy), written in Latin and thus addressed to the learned. It was followed, in 1644, by <i>Principia Philosophiæ</i> (Principles of Philosophy), a kind of synthesis of the <i>Discourse on the Method</i> and <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i>. In 1643, Cartesian philosophy was condemned at the University of Utrecht, and Descartes was obliged to flee to The Hague.</p>
<p>Descartes began (through Alfonso Polloti, an Italian general in Dutch service) a long correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Bohemia,_Princess_Palatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine">Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia</a>, devoted mainly to moral and psychological subjects. Connected with this correspondence, in 1649 he published <i>Les Passions de l'âme</i> (Passions of the Soul), that he dedicated to the Princess. In 1647, he was awarded a pension by the <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>, though it was never paid.<sup id="cite_ref-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009-31">[31]</a></sup> A French translation of <i>Principia Philosophiæ</i>, prepared by Abbot Claude Picot, was published in 1647. This edition Descartes also dedicated to Princess Elisabeth. In <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy#Preface_to_the_French_edition" title="Principles of Philosophy">the preface to the French edition</a>, Descartes praised true philosophy as a means to attain wisdom. He identifies four ordinary sources to reach wisdom, and finally says that there is a fifth, better and more secure, consisting in the search for first causes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sweden">Sweden</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Sweden">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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The rear of the "von der Lindeska huset" on Västerlånggatan 68.</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Christina,_Queen_of_Sweden" title="Christina, Queen of Sweden">Queen Christina of Sweden</a> invited Descartes to her court in 1649 to organize a new scientific academy and tutor her in his ideas about love. She was interested in and stimulated Descartes to publish the "<a href="/wiki/Passions_of_the_Soul" title="Passions of the Soul">Passions of the Soul</a>", a work based on his correspondence with Princess Elisabeth.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<p>He was a guest at the house of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Chanut" title="Pierre Chanut">Pierre Chanut</a>, living on <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4sterl%C3%A5nggatan" title="Västerlånggatan">Västerlånggatan</a>, less than 500 meters from <a href="/wiki/Tre_Kronor_(castle)" title="Tre Kronor (castle)">Tre Kronor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>. There, Chanut and Descartes made observations with a <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Torricellian</a> barometer, a tube with <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>. Challenging <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, Descartes took the first set of barometric readings in Stockholm to see if <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> could be used in forecasting the weather.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Death">Death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Descartes apparently started giving lessons to Queen Christina after her birthday, three times a week, at 5 a.m, in her cold and draughty castle. Soon it became clear they did not like each other; she did not like his <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy#Descartes_and_the_mechanical_philosophy" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a>, nor did he appreciate her interest in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>. By 15 January 1650, Descartes had seen Christina only four or five times. On 1 February he caught a cold which quickly turned into a serious respiratory infection, and he died on 11 February. The cause of death was <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> according to Chanut, but <a href="/wiki/Pleurisy" title="Pleurisy">peripneumonia</a> according to the doctor Van Wullen who was not allowed to bleed him.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> (The winter seems to have been mild,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> except for the second half of January) which was harsh as described by Descartes himself. "This remark was probably intended to be as much Descartes' take on the intellectual climate as it was about the weather."<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<p>In 1996 E. Pies, a German scholar, published a book questioning this account, based on a letter by Johann van Wullen, who had been sent by Christina to treat him, something Descartes refused, and more arguments against its veracity have been raised since.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Descartes might have been assassinated<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stockholmnews.com_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stockholmnews.com-40">[40]</a></sup> as he asked for an <a href="/wiki/Emetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Emetic">emetic</a>: wine mixed with tobacco.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></p>
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The tomb of Descartes (middle, with detail of the inscription), in the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint-Germain-des-Pr%C3%A9s" title="Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés">Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés</a>, Paris</div>
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His memorial, erected in the 1720s, in the Adolf Fredriks kyrka.</div>
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<p>As a Catholic in a Protestant nation, he was interred in a graveyard used mainly for orphans in <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Fredriks_kyrka" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolf Fredriks kyrka">Adolf Fredriks kyrka</a> in Stockholm. His manuscripts came into the possession of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Clerselier" title="Claude Clerselier">Claude Clerselier</a>, Chanut's brother-in-law, and "a devout Catholic who has begun the process of turning Descartes into a saint by cutting, adding and publishing his letters selectively."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> In 1663, the <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII" title="Pope Alexander VII">Pope</a> placed his works on the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index of Prohibited Books</a>. In 1666 his remains were taken to France and buried in the <a href="/wiki/Saint-%C3%89tienne-du-Mont" title="Saint-Étienne-du-Mont">Saint-Étienne-du-Mont</a>. In 1671 Louis XIV prohibited all the lectures in <a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> in 1792 had planned to transfer his remains to the <a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_(Paris)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthéon (Paris)">Panthéon</a>, he was reburied in the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint-Germain-des-Pr%C3%A9s" title="Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés">Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés</a> in 1819, missing a finger and the skull.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophical_work">Philosophical work</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Philosophical work">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></div>
<p>Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> For him the philosophy was a thinking system that embodied all knowledge, and expressed it in this way:<sup id="cite_ref-Preface_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Preface-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
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<p>Thus, all Philosophy is like a tree, of which Metaphysics is the root, Physics the trunk, and all the other sciences the branches that grow out of this trunk, which are reduced to three principals, namely, Medicine, Mechanics, and Ethics. By the science of Morals, I understand the highest and most perfect which, presupposing an entire knowledge of the other sciences, is the last degree of wisdom.</p>
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<p>In his <i>Discourse on the Method</i>, he attempts to arrive at a fundamental set of principles that one can know as true without any doubt. To achieve this, he employs a method called hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt, also sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Methodological_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological skepticism">methodological skepticism</a>: he rejects any ideas that can be doubted, and then reestablishes them in order to acquire a firm foundation for genuine knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup></p>
<p>Initially, Descartes arrives at only a single principle: thought exists. Thought cannot be separated from me, therefore, I exist (<i>Discourse on the Method</i> and <i>Principles of Philosophy</i>). Most famously, this is known as <i>cogito ergo sum</i> (English: "I think, therefore I am"). Therefore, Descartes concluded, if he doubted, then something or someone must be doing the doubting, therefore the very fact that he doubted proved his existence. "The simple meaning of the phrase is that if one is skeptical of existence, that is in and of itself proof that he does exist."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup></p>
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René Descartes at work</div>
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<p>Descartes concludes that he can be certain that he exists because he thinks. But in what form? He perceives his body through the use of the senses; however, these have previously been unreliable. So Descartes determines that the only indubitable knowledge is that he is a <i>thinking thing</i>. Thinking is what he does, and his power must come from his essence. Descartes defines "thought" (<i>cogitatio</i>) as "what happens in me such that I am immediately conscious of it, insofar as I am conscious of it". Thinking is thus every activity of a person of which the person is immediately <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">conscious</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<p>To further demonstrate the limitations of these senses, Descartes proceeds with what is known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Wax_Argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Wax Argument">Wax Argument</a></i>. He considers a piece of wax; his senses inform him that it has certain characteristics, such as shape, texture, size, color, smell, and so forth. When he brings the wax towards a flame, these characteristics change completely. However, it seems that it is still the same thing: it is still the same piece of wax, even though the data of the senses inform him that all of its characteristics are different. Therefore, in order to properly grasp the nature of the wax, he should put aside the senses. He must use his mind. Descartes concludes:</p>
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<p>And so something that I thought I was seeing with my eyes is in fact grasped solely by the faculty of judgment which is in my mind.</p>
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<p>In this manner, Descartes proceeds to construct a system of knowledge, discarding <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> as unreliable and instead admitting only <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a> as a method. In the third and fifth <i>Meditation</i>, he offers an <a href="/wiki/Ontological_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological proof">ontological proof</a> of a benevolent God (through both the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">trademark argument</a>). Because God is benevolent, he can have some faith in the account of reality his senses provide him, for God has provided him with a working mind and <a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" title="Sensory system">sensory system</a> and does not desire to deceive him. From this supposition, however, he finally establishes the possibility of acquiring knowledge about the world based on deduction <i>and</i> perception. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> therefore, he can be said to have contributed such ideas as a rigorous conception of <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a> and the possibility that <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> is the only reliable method of attaining knowledge. He, nevertheless, was very much aware that experimentation was necessary in order to verify and validate theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Preface_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Preface-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
<p>Descartes also wrote a response to <a href="/wiki/External_world_scepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="External world scepticism">External world scepticism</a>. He argues that <a href="/wiki/Sensory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory perception">sensory perceptions</a> come to him involuntarily, and are not willed by him. They are external to his senses, and according to Descartes, this is evidence of the existence of something outside of his mind, and thus, an external world. Descartes goes on to show that the things in the external world are material by arguing that God would not deceive him as to the ideas that are being transmitted, and that God has given him the "propensity" to believe that such ideas are caused by material things. He gave reasons for thinking that waking thoughts are distinguishable from <a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">dreams</a>, and that one's mind cannot have been "hijacked" by an <a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">evil demon</a> placing an illusory external world before one's senses.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dualism">Dualism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Dualism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mind-body_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body dichotomy">Mind-body dichotomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a></div>
<p>Descartes in his <i>Passions of the Soul</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Description_of_the_Human_Body" title="The Description of the Human Body">The Description of the Human Body</a></i> suggested that the body works like a machine, that it has material properties. The <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>), on the other hand, was described as a <a href="/wiki/Mental_world" title="Mental world">nonmaterial</a> and does not follow the laws of nature. Descartes argued that the mind interacts with the body at the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>. This form of <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a> or duality proposes that the mind controls the body, but that the body can also influence the otherwise rational mind, such as when people act out of passion. Most of the previous accounts of the relationship between mind and body had been uni-directional.</p>
<p>Descartes suggested that the pineal gland is "the seat of the soul" for several reasons. First, the soul is unitary, and unlike many areas of the brain the pineal gland appeared to be unitary (though subsequent microscopic inspection has revealed it is formed of two hemispheres). Second, Descartes observed that the pineal gland was located near the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a>. He believed the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> of the ventricles acted through the nerves to control the body, and that the pineal gland influenced this process. Sensations delivered by the nerves to the pineal, he believed, caused it to vibrate in some sympathetic manner, which in turn gave rise to the emotions and caused the body to act.<sup id="cite_ref-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009-31">[31]</a></sup> Cartesian dualism set the agenda for philosophical discussion of the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a> for many years after Descartes' death.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup></p>
<p>In present-day discussions on the practice of animal <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a>, it is normal to consider Descartes as an advocate of this practice, as a result of his dualistic philosophy. Some of the sources say that Descartes denied the animals could feel pain, and therefore could be used without concern.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Other sources consider that Descartes denied that animals had reason or intelligence, but did not lack sensations or perceptions, but these could be explained mechanistically<i>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup></i></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Descartes.27_moral_philosophy">Descartes' moral philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Descartes' moral philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>For Descartes, ethics was a science, the highest and most perfect of them. Like the rest of the sciences, ethics had its roots in metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-Preface_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Preface-45">[45]</a></sup> In this way he argues for the existence of God, investigates the place of man in nature, formulates the theory of mind-body dualism, and defends <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>. However, as he was a convinced rationalist, Descartes clearly states that reason is sufficient in the search for the goods that we should seek, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Nevertheless, the quality of this reasoning depends on knowledge, because a well-informed mind will be more capable of making good choices, and it also depends on mental condition. For this reason he said that a complete moral philosophy should include the study of the body. He discussed this subject in the correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Princess_Elisabeth_of_Bohemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia">Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia</a>, and as a result wrote his work <i>The Passions of the Soul</i>, that contains a study of the <a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychosomatic">psychosomatic</a> processes and reactions in man, with an emphasis on emotions or passions.<sup id="cite_ref-Blom_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blom-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
<p>Humans should seek the <a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">sovereign good</a> that Descartes, following <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno</a>, identifies with virtue, as this produces a solid blessedness or pleasure. For <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that this good contributes to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control, whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.<sup id="cite_ref-Blom_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blom-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
<p>The moral writings of Descartes came at the last part of his life, but earlier, in his <i>Discourse on the Method</i> he adopted three maxims to be able to act while he put all his ideas into doubt. This is known as his <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method#Part_III:_Morals.2C_and_Maxims_accepted_while_conducting_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">"Provisional Morals"</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Religious_beliefs">Religious beliefs</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Religious beliefs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In his <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i> Descartes sets forth two proofs for God's existence. One of these is founded upon the possibility of thinking the "idea of a being that is supremely perfect and infinite," and suggests that "of all the ideas that are in me, the idea that I have of God is the most true, the most clear and distinct."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> Descartes considered himself to be a devout Catholic<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.be_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.be-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107-4">[4]</a></sup> and one of the purposes of the <i>Meditations</i> was to defend the Catholic faith. His attempt to ground theological beliefs on reason encountered intense opposition in his time, however: <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a> regarded Descartes' views as rationalist and mechanist, and accused him of <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a>: "I cannot forgive Descartes; in all his philosophy, Descartes did his best to dispense with God. But Descartes could not avoid prodding God to set the world in motion with a snap of his lordly fingers; after that, he had no more use for God," while a powerful contemporary, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Schoock" title="Martin Schoock">Martin Schoock</a>, accused him of <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a> beliefs, though Descartes had provided an explicit critique of atheism in his <i>Meditations</i>. The Catholic Church prohibited his books in 1663.<sup id="cite_ref-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_impact">Historical impact</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Historical impact">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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Cover of <i>Meditations</i>.</div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Emancipation_from_Church_doctrine">Emancipation from Church doctrine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Emancipation from Church doctrine">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Descartes has often been dubbed the father of modern Western philosophy, the philosopher that with his <a href="/wiki/Skeptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic">skeptic</a> approach has profoundly changed the course of Western philosophy and set the basis for <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell2004p516_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2004p516-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> The first two of his <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i>, those that formulate the famous <a href="/wiki/Methodic_doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodic doubt">methodic doubt</a>, represent the portion of Descartes' writings that most influenced modern thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> It has been argued that Descartes himself didn't realize the extent of his revolutionary gesture.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> In shifting the debate from "what is true" to "of what can I be certain?," Descartes shifted the authoritative guarantor of truth from God to humanity. (While the traditional concept of "truth" implies an external authority, "certainty" instead relies on the judgment of the individual.) In an <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropocentric">anthropocentric</a> revolution, the human being is now raised to the level of a subject, an agent, an <a href="/wiki/Emancipated" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipated">emancipated</a> being equipped with autonomous reason. This was a revolutionary step that posed the basis of modernity, the repercussions of which are still ongoing: the emancipation of humanity from Christian <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelational</a> truth and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Church doctrine</a>, a person who makes his own law and takes his own stand.<sup id="cite_ref-Heidegger1938emancipated_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heidegger1938emancipated-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ingraffia95p126_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingraffia95p126-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> In modernity, the guarantor of truth is not God anymore but human beings, each of whom is a "self-conscious shaper and guarantor" of their own reality.<sup id="cite_ref-Lovitt77pxxv_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovitt77pxxv-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> In that way, each person is turned into a reasoning adult, a subject, and agent,<sup id="cite_ref-Lovitt77pxxv_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovitt77pxxv-61">[61]</a></sup> as opposed to a child obedient to God. This change in perspective was characteristic of the shift from the Christian medieval period to the modern period; that shift had been anticipated in other fields, and now Descartes was giving it a formulation in the field of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Lovitt77pxxv_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovitt77pxxv-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup></p>
<p>This anthropocentric perspective, establishing human reason as autonomous, provided the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>'s emancipation from God and the Church. It also provided the basis for all subsequent <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heidegger19382002p75_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heidegger19382002p75-64">[64]</a></sup> Descartes' philosophical revolution is sometimes said to have sparked modern <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">anthropocentrism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell2004p516_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2004p516-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mathematical_legacy">Mathematical legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Mathematical legacy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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A Cartesian coordinates graph, using his invented <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> axes.</div>
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<p>One of Descartes' most enduring legacies was his development of <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian geometry">Cartesian or analytic geometry</a>, which uses algebra to describe geometry. He "invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, and <i>z</i>, and knowns by <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>". He also "pioneered the standard notation" that uses <a href="/wiki/Superscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Superscript">superscripts</a> to show the powers or exponents; for example, the 4 used in x<sup>4</sup> to indicate squaring of squaring.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> He was first to assign a fundamental place for algebra in our system of knowledge, and believed that algebra was a method to automate or mechanize reasoning, particularly about abstract, unknown quantities. European mathematicians had previously viewed geometry as a more fundamental form of mathematics, serving as the foundation of algebra. Algebraic rules were given geometric proofs by mathematicians such as <a href="/wiki/Luca_Pacioli" title="Luca Pacioli">Pacioli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Cardan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia" title="Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia">Tartaglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_Ferrari" title="Lodovico Ferrari">Ferrari</a>. Equations of <a href="/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial" title="Degree of a polynomial">degree</a> higher than the third were regarded as unreal, because a three-dimensional form, such as a cube, occupied the largest dimension of reality. Descartes professed that the abstract quantity <i>a<sup>2</sup></i> could represent length as well as an area. This was in opposition to the teachings of mathematicians, such as <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Vi%C3%A8te" title="François Viète">Vieta</a>, who argued that it could represent only area. Although Descartes did not pursue the subject, he preceded <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> in envisioning a more general science of algebra or "universal mathematics," as a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>, that could encompass logical principles and methods symbolically, and mechanize general reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></p>
<p>Descartes' work provided the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, who applied infinitesimal calculus to the <a href="/wiki/Tangent#Analytical_approach" title="Tangent">tangent line problem</a>, thus permitting the evolution of that branch of modern mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_rule_of_signs" title="Descartes' rule of signs">rule of signs</a> is also a commonly used method to determine the number of positive and negative roots of a polynomial.</p>
<p>Descartes discovered an early form of the law of conservation of mechanical <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> (a measure of the motion of an object), and envisioned it as pertaining to motion in a straight line, as opposed to perfect circular motion, as <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> had envisioned it. He outlined his views on the universe in his <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a>.</p>
<p>Descartes also made contributions to the field of <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>. He showed by using geometric construction and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of refraction">law of refraction</a> (also known as Descartes' law or more commonly <a href="/wiki/Snell%27s_law" title="Snell's law">Snell's law</a>) that the angular radius of a <a href="/wiki/Rainbow" title="Rainbow">rainbow</a> is 42 degrees (i.e., the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the ray passing from the sun through the rainbow's centre is 42°).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> He also independently discovered the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of reflection">law of reflection</a>, and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_Newton.27s_mathematics">Influence on Newton's mathematics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Influence on Newton's mathematics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Current opinion is that Descartes had the most influence of anyone on the young Newton, and this is arguably one of Descartes' most important contributions. Newton continued Descartes' work on cubic equations, which freed the subject from the fetters of the Greek and Macedonian perspectives. The most important concept was his very modern treatment of independent variables.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_reception">Contemporary reception</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Contemporary reception">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Although Descartes was well known in academic circles towards the end of his life, the teaching of his works in schools was controversial. Henri de Roy (<a href="/wiki/Henricus_Regius" title="Henricus Regius">Henricus Regius</a>, 1598–1679), Professor of Medicine at the University of Utrecht, was condemned by the Rector of the University, <a href="/wiki/Gijsbert_Voet" class="mw-redirect" title="Gijsbert Voet">Gijsbert Voet</a> (Voetius), for teaching Descartes' physics.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Writings">Writings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Writings">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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Handwritten letter by Descartes, December 1638.</div>
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<li>1618. <i>Musicae Compendium</i>. A treatise on music theory and the aesthetics of music written for Descartes' early collaborator, Isaac Beeckman (first posthumous edition 1650).</li>
<li>1626–1628. <i>Regulae ad directionem ingenii</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Rules_for_the_Direction_of_the_Mind" title="Rules for the Direction of the Mind">Rules for the Direction of the Mind</a></i>). Incomplete. First published posthumously in Dutch translation in 1684 and in the original Latin at Amsterdam in 1701 (<i>R. Des-Cartes Opuscula Posthuma Physica et Mathematica</i>). The best critical edition, which includes the Dutch translation of 1684, is edited by Giovanni Crapulli (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1966).</li>
<li>1630–1631. <i>La recherche de la vérité par la lumière naturelle</i> (<i>The Search for Truth</i>) unfinished dialogue published in 1701.</li>
<li>1630–1633. <i>Le Monde</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_World_(Descartes)" title="The World (Descartes)">The World</a></i>) and <i>L'Homme</i> (<i>Man</i>). Descartes' first systematic presentation of his natural philosophy. <i>Man</i> was published posthumously in Latin translation in 1662; and <i>The World</i> posthumously in 1664.</li>
<li>1637. <i>Discours de la méthode</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a></i>). An introduction to the <i>Essais</i>, which include the <i>Dioptrique</i>, the <i>Météores</i> and the <i>Géométrie</i>.</li>
<li>1637. <i><a href="/wiki/La_G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie" title="La Géométrie">La Géométrie</a></i> (<i>Geometry</i>). Descartes' major work in mathematics. There is an English translation by Michael Mahoney (New York: Dover, 1979).</li>
<li>1641. <i>Meditationes de prima philosophia</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>), also known as <i>Metaphysical Meditations</i>. In Latin; a second edition, published the following year, included an additional objection and reply, and a <i>Letter to Dinet</i>. A French translation by the Duke of Luynes, probably done without Descartes' supervision, was published in 1647. Includes six <a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy#Objections_and_replies" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Objections and Replies</a>.</li>
<li>1644. <i>Principia philosophiae</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a></i>), a Latin textbook at first intended by Descartes to replace the Aristotelian textbooks then used in universities. A French translation, <i>Principes de philosophie</i> by Claude Picot, under the supervision of Descartes, appeared in 1647 with a letter-preface to Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia.</li>
<li>1647. <i>Notae in programma</i> (<i>Comments on a Certain Broadsheet</i>). A reply to Descartes' one-time disciple Henricus Regius.</li>
<li>1648. <i>La description du corps humaine</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Description_of_the_Human_Body" title="The Description of the Human Body">The Description of the Human Body</a></i>). Published posthumously by Clerselier in 1667.</li>
<li>1648. <i>Responsiones Renati Des Cartes...</i> (<i>Conversation with Burman</i>). Notes on a Q&amp;A session between Descartes and Frans Burman on 16 April 1648. Rediscovered in 1895 and published for the first time in 1896. An annotated bilingual edition (Latin with French translation), edited by Jean-Marie Beyssade, was published in 1981 (Paris: PUF).</li>
<li>1649. <i>Les passions de l'âme</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Passions_of_the_Soul" title="Passions of the Soul">Passions of the Soul</a></i>). Dedicated to Princess <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_the_Palatinate" title="Elisabeth of the Palatinate">Elisabeth of the Palatinate</a>.</li>
<li>1657. <i>Correspondance</i> (three volumes: 1657, 1659, 1667). Published by Descartes' literary executor <a href="/wiki/Claude_Clerselier" title="Claude Clerselier">Claude Clerselier</a>. The third edition, in 1667, was the most complete; Clerselier omitted, however, much of the material pertaining to mathematics.</li>
</ul>
<p>In January 2010, a previously unknown letter from Descartes, dated 27 May 1641, was found by the Dutch philosopher Erik-Jan Bos when browsing through <a href="/wiki/Google_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Google search">Google</a>. Bos found the letter mentioned in a summary of autographs kept by <a href="/wiki/Haverford_College" title="Haverford College">Haverford College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Haverford,_Pennsylvania" title="Haverford, Pennsylvania">Haverford, Pennsylvania</a>. The College was unaware that the letter had never been published. This was the third letter by Descartes found in the last 25 years.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-4" style="-moz-column-count: 4; -webkit-column-count: 4; column-count: 4;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/3587_Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="3587 Descartes">3587 Descartes</a>, asteroid</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_geometry" title="Analytic geometry">Analytic geometry</a> (Cartesian geometry)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_circle" title="Cartesian circle">Cartesian circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian diagram">Cartesian diagram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_diver" title="Cartesian diver">Cartesian diver</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_morphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian morphism">Cartesian morphism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian plane">Cartesian plane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_product" title="Cartesian product">Cartesian product</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_product_of_graphs" title="Cartesian product of graphs">Cartesian product of graphs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_tree" title="Cartesian tree">Cartesian tree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conatus#In_Descartes" title="Conatus">Conatus (Descartes)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_rule_of_signs" title="Descartes' rule of signs">Descartes' rule of signs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_theorem" title="Descartes' theorem">Descartes' theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_interactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic interactionism">Dualistic interactionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Folium_of_Descartes" title="Folium of Descartes">Folium of Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of Spinoza">Philosophy of Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism#Descartes" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voluntarism_(theology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Voluntarism (theology)">Voluntarism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Russell_Shorto" title="Russell Shorto">Shorto, Russell</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cartelen.louvre.fr">"Descartes' Bones"</a>. Doubleday. p.&#160;218.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Russell&amp;rft.aulast=Shorto&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes%27+Bones&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcartelen.louvre.fr&amp;rft.pages=218&amp;rft.pub=Doubleday&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> see also <a href="/wiki/The_Louvre" class="mw-redirect" title="The Louvre">The Louvre</a>, Atlas Database</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-books.google.be-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.be_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.be_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.be/books?id=SJxEw4nVDXQC&amp;pg=PA510&amp;dq=queen+of+sweden+descartes+catholicism&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwisxsLRsofLAhWBvxoKHQObDnQQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&amp;q=queen%20of%20sweden%20descartes%20catholicism&amp;f=false"><i>Rome and the Counter-Reformation in Scandinavia: The Age of Gustavus Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden</i>, 1992, p. 510</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KrR-5EKLSQMC_p._207_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.be/books?id=KrR-5EKLSQMC&amp;pg=PA207&amp;dq=descartes+catholic&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiPzMbKs4fLAhVB1BoKHbC5D-UQ6AEIIzAB#v=onepage&amp;q=descartes%20catholic&amp;f=false"><i>Descartes: His Life and Thought</i>, 1999, p. 207</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gh_BAAAQBAJ_p._107_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.be/books?id=8Gh_BAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA107&amp;dq=descartes+catholicism&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjJvo2EtofLAhUJNhoKHRPUAXQ4ChDoAQggMAE#v=onepage&amp;q=descartes%20catholicism&amp;f=false"><i>Early Modern Philosophy of Religion: The History of Western Philosophy of Religion</i>, 2014, p. 107</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Marenbon, John (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415281133"><i>Medieval Philosophy: an historical and philosophical introduction</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p.&#160;174. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28113-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28113-3">978-0-415-28113-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Marenbon&amp;rft.btitle=Medieval+Philosophy%3A+an+historical+and+philosophical+introduction&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%2F9780415281133&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-28113-3&amp;rft.pages=174&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Étienne Gilson</a> argued in <i>La Liberté chez Descartes et la Théologie</i> (Alcan, 1913, pp. 132–47) that Duns Scotus was not the source of Descartes' <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_theological_voluntatarism&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Medieval theological voluntatarism (page does not exist)">Voluntarism</a>. Although there exist doctrinal differences between Descartes and Scotus "it is still possible to view Descartes as borrowing from a Scotist Voluntarist tradition" (see: John Schuster, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WPGb_P4mP8AC&amp;dq="><i>Descartes-Agonistes: Physcio-mathematics, Method &amp; Corpuscular-Mechanism 1618–33</i></a>, Springer, 2012, p. 363, fn. 26).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/B/BOS/jacques-benigne-bossuet.html">"Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, French prelate and historian (1627–1704)"</a> from the Encyclopædia Britannica, 10th Edition (1902)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/descartes">"Descartes"</a> entry in <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>, HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Colie, Rosalie L. (1957). <i>Light and Enlightenment</i>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Rosalie+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Colie&amp;rft.btitle=Light+and+Enlightenment&amp;rft.date=1957&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=58&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Russell2004p516-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russell2004p516_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell2004p516_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell2004p516_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey94E3sOMA0C&amp;pg=PA516"><i>History of western philosophy</i></a> pp.511, 516–7</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Britannica-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Watson_(philosopher)" title="Richard Watson (philosopher)">Watson, Richard A.</a> (31 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes">"René Descartes"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Watson&amp;rft.date=2012-03-31&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F158787%2FRene-Descartes&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Carlson, Neil R. (2001). <i>Physiology of Behavior</i>. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Pearson: Allyn &amp; Bacon. p.&#160;8. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-30840-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-30840-6">0-205-30840-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Neil+R.&amp;rft.aulast=Carlson&amp;rft.btitle=Physiology+of+Behavior&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-205-30840-6&amp;rft.pages=8&amp;rft.place=Needham+Heights%2C+Massachusetts&amp;rft.pub=Pearson%3A+Allyn+%26+Bacon&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. H. Moorman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/Spinoza/Texts/The%20Influence%20of%20Mathematics%20on%20the%20Philosophy%20of%20Spinoza.pdf">"The Influence of Mathematics on the Philosophy of Spinoza"</a>, <i>National Mathematics Magazine</i>, Vol. 18, No. 3. (Dec., 1943), pp. 108–115.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This idea had already been proposed by the Spanish philosopher <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B3mez_Pereira" title="Gómez Pereira">Gómez Pereira</a> a hundred years ago in the form: "I know I know something. Everything that knows is: thus I am" (<i>Nosco me aliquid noscere: at quidquid noscit, est: ergo ego sum</i>). See: Gómez Pereira, <i>De Inmortalitate Animae</i>, 1749 [1554], p. 277; Santos López, Modesto (1986). "Gómez Pereira, médico y filósofo medinense". In: <i>Historia de Medina del Campo y su Tierra, volumen I: Nacimiento y expansión</i>, ed. by Eufemio Lorenzo Sanz, 1986.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rodis-Lewis, Geneviève (1992). "Descartes' life and the development of his philosophy". In <a href="/wiki/John_Cottingham" title="John Cottingham">Cottingham, John</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Prhr9FBdQ_MC"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Descartes</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;22. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36696-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36696-0">978-0-521-36696-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Descartes%27+life+and+the+development+of+his+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Genevi%C3%A8ve&amp;rft.aulast=Rodis-Lewis&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Descartes&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPrhr9FBdQ_MC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-36696-0&amp;rft.pages=22&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://all-history.org/world_literature/descartes1.htm">All-history.org</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarke (2006), p. 24</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Porter, Roy</a> (1999) [1997]. "The New Science". <i>The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present</i> (paperback edition, 135798642 ed.). Great Britain: Harper Collins. p.&#160;217. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0006374549" title="Special:BookSources/0006374549">0006374549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=The+New+Science&amp;rft.aufirst=Roy&amp;rft.aulast=Porter&amp;rft.btitle=The+Greatest+Benefit+to+Mankind%3A+A+Medical+History+of+Humanity+from+Antiquity+to+the+Present&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.edition=paperback+edition%2C+135798642&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=0006374549&amp;rft.pages=217&amp;rft.place=Great+Britain&amp;rft.pub=Harper+Collins&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Baird, Forrest E.; Kaufmann, Walter (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp.&#160;373–377. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6">0-13-158591-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&amp;rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+Walter&amp;rft.aulast=Baird&amp;rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-158591-6&amp;rft.pages=373-377&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Durandin-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Durandin_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durandin_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durandin_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Guy Durandin, Les Principes de la Philosophie. Introduction et notes, Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, Paris, 1970.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Descartes.html">History.mcs.st-and.ac.uk</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/642395/Battle-of-White-Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a>, Britannica Online Encyclopedia</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Durant, Ariel</a> (1961). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization:_Part_VII,_the_Age_of_Reason_Begins" class="mw-redirect" title="The Story of Civilization: Part VII, the Age of Reason Begins">The Story of Civilization: Part VII, the Age of Reason Begins</a></i>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p.&#160;637. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-01320-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-01320-3">0-671-01320-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&amp;rft.aufirst=Will&amp;rft.aulast=Durant&amp;rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+Part+VII%2C+the+Age+of+Reason+Begins&amp;rft.date=1961&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-671-01320-3&amp;rft.pages=637&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarke (2006), pp. 58–59.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolas de Villiers, sieur de Chandoux, <i>Lettres sur l'or potable suivies du traité De la connaissance des vrais principes de la nature et des mélanges et de fragments d'un Commentaire sur l'Amphithéâtre de la Sapience éternelle de Khunrath</i>, Textes édités et présentés par Sylvain Matton avec des études de Xavier Kieft et de Simone Mazauric. Préface de Vincent Carraud, Paris, 2013.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A.C._Grayling" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Grayling">A.C. Grayling</a>, <i>Descartes: The Life of René Descartes and Its Place in His Times</i>, Simon and Schuster, 2006, pp. 151–152</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Durant, Will and Ariel (1961). <i>The Story of Civilization: Par VII, the Age of reason Begins</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p.&#160;638. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-01320-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-01320-3">0-671-01320-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Will+and+Ariel&amp;rft.aulast=Durant&amp;rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+Par+VII%2C+the+Age+of+reason+Begins&amp;rft.date=1961&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-671-01320-3&amp;rft.pages=638&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell Shorto, Descartes' Bones: A Skeletal History of the Conflict Between Faith and Reason <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385517539" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-385-51753-9</a> (New York, Random House, October 14th, 2008)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While in the Netherlands he changed his address frequently, living among other places in Dordrecht (1628), <a href="/wiki/Franeker" title="Franeker">Franeker</a> (1629), Amsterdam (1629–30), <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> (1630), Amsterdam (1630–32), Deventer (1632–34), Amsterdam (1634–35), <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a> (1635–36), Leiden (1636), <a href="/wiki/Egmond_aan_den_Hoef" title="Egmond aan den Hoef">Egmond</a> (1636–38), <a href="/wiki/Santpoort" class="mw-redirect" title="Santpoort">Santpoort</a> (1638–1640), Leiden (1640–41), Endegeest (a castle near <a href="/wiki/Oegstgeest" title="Oegstgeest">Oegstgeest</a>) (1641–43), and finally for an extended time in <a href="/wiki/Egmond-Binnen" title="Egmond-Binnen">Egmond-Binnen</a> (1643–49).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">He had lived with <a href="/wiki/Henricus_Reneri" title="Henricus Reneri">Henricus Reneri</a> in Deventer and Amsterdam, and had met with <a href="/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens" title="Constantijn Huygens">Constantijn Huygens</a> and Vopiscus Fortunatus Plempius; Descartes was interviewed by Frans Burman at Egmond-Binnen in 1648. <a href="/wiki/Henricus_Regius" title="Henricus Regius">Henricus Regius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Jansz_de_Jonge_Stampioen" title="Jan Jansz de Jonge Stampioen">Jan Stampioen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frans_van_Schooten" title="Frans van Schooten">Frans van Schooten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comenius" class="mw-redirect" title="Comenius">Comenius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gisbertus_Voetius" title="Gisbertus Voetius">Gisbertus Voetius</a> were his main opponents.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Descartes.2C_Ren.C3.A9_2009_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Descartes, René. (2009). Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2009 Deluxe Edition. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blom, John J., Descartes. His Moral Philosophy and Psychology. New York University Press, 1978. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814709990" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8147-0999-0</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Smith-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Smith, Kurt (Fall 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-works/">"Descartes' Life and Works"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Descartes%27+Life+and+Works&amp;rft.aufirst=Kurt&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdescartes-works%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.ssn=fall&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2009/alm09jun.htm">Islandnet.com</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/modernmeteorolog00mete/modernmeteorolog00mete_djvu.txt">Archive.org</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rue89.nouvelobs.com/2010/02/12/il-y-a-des-preuves-que-rene-descartes-a-ete-assassine-138138">Rue89.nouvelobs.com</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.int-res.com/articles/cr/17/c017p055.pdf">Severity of winter seasons in the northern Baltic Sea between 1529 and 1990: reconstruction and analysis by S. Jevrejeva, p.6, Table 3</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pies Е., <i>Der Mordfall Descartes</i>, Solingen , 1996, and Ebert Т., <i>Der rätselhafte Tod des René Descartes</i>, Aschaffenburg, Alibri, 2009. French translation: <i>L'Énigme de la mort de Descartes</i>, Paris, Hermann, 2011</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/feb/14/rene-descartes-poisoned-catholic-priest">"Descartes was "poisoned by Catholic priest" – <i>The Guardian</i>, Feb 14 2010"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Descartes+was+%22poisoned+by+Catholic+priest%22+%93+The+Guardian%2C+Feb+14+2010&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fworld%2F2010%2Ffeb%2F14%2Frene-descartes-poisoned-catholic-priest&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stockholmnews.com-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stockholmnews.com_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stockholmnews.com/more.aspx?NID=4867">"Was Descartes murdered in Stockholm?"</a>. <i>Stockholm News</i>. 22 February 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Was+Descartes+murdered+in+Stockholm%3F&amp;rft.date=2010-02-22&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stockholmnews.com%2Fmore.aspx%3FNID%3D4867&amp;rft.jtitle=Stockholm+News&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This reference citation appears to be to a self-published source (August 2015)">self-published source</span></a></i>]</sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophyonthemesa.com/tag/theodor-ebert/">Philosophyonthemesa.com</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://andrefabre.e-monsite.com/pages/histoire-de-la-medecine/descartes-in-sweden.html">Andrefabre.e-monsite.com</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The remains are, two centuries later, still resting between two other graves–those of the scholarly monks <a href="/wiki/Jean_Mabillon" title="Jean Mabillon">Jean Mabillon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Montfaucon" title="Bernard de Montfaucon">Bernard de Montfaucon</a>—in a chapel of the abbey.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Emily_Grosholz" title="Emily Grosholz">Grosholz, Emily</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=2EtAVLU1eIAC&amp;pg=PA1"><i>Cartesian method and the problem of reduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824250-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824250-6">0-19-824250-6</a>. <q>But contemporary debate has tended to...understand [Cartesian method] merely as the 'method of doubt'...I want to define Descartes' method in broader terms...to trace its impact on the domains of mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Emily&amp;rft.aulast=Grosholz&amp;rft.btitle=Cartesian+method+and+the+problem+of+reduction&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D2EtAVLU1eIAC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-824250-6&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Preface-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Preface_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Preface_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Preface_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Descartes, René. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.classicallibrary.org/descartes/principles/preface.htm">"Letter of the Author to the French Translator of the Principles of Philosophy serving for a preface"</a>. Translated by Veitch, John<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved December 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.aulast=Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Letter+of+the+Author+to+the+French+Translator+of+the+Principles+of+Philosophy+serving+for+a+preface&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.classicallibrary.org%2Fdescartes%2Fprinciples%2Fpreface.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Copenhaver, Rebecca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050108095032/http://www.lclark.edu/~rebeccac/forms.html">"Forms of skepticism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lclark.edu/~rebeccac/forms.html">the original</a> on 8 January 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Rebecca&amp;rft.aulast=Copenhaver&amp;rft.btitle=Forms+of+skepticism&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lclark.edu%2F~rebeccac%2Fforms.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/181/3/258">"Ten books: Chosen by Raj Persuade"</a>. The <a href="/wiki/British_Journal_of_Psychiatry" title="British Journal of Psychiatry">British Journal of Psychiatry</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Ten+books%3A+Chosen+by+Raj+Persuade&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbjp.rcpsych.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F181%2F3%2F258&amp;rft.pub=The+British+Journal+of+Psychiatry&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Descartes, René (1644). <i>The Principles of Philosophy (IX)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.aulast=Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Philosophy+%28IX%29&amp;rft.date=1644&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (online): Descartes and the Pineal Gland.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boingboing.net/2011/06/30/richard-dawkins-on-v.html">"<i>Richard Dawkins on vivisection: "But can they suffer?</i>"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boingboing" class="mw-redirect" title="Boingboing">Boingboing</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Dawkins&amp;rft.btitle=Richard+Dawkins+on+vivisection%3A+%22But+can+they+suffer%3F&amp;rft.date=2012-06&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fboingboing.net%2F2011%2F06%2F30%2Frichard-dawkins-on-v.html&amp;rft.pub=Boingboing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-animal/#hist">"<i>Animal Consciousness</i>, No. 2. Historical background"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 23 December 1995<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Animal+Consciousness%2C+No.+2.+Historical+background&amp;rft.date=1995-12-23&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconsciousness-animal%2F%23hist&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Blom-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blom_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blom_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Blom, John J., Descartes. His moral philosophy and psychology. New York University Press. 1978. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814709990" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8147-0999-0</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Descartes, Rene "Meditations on First Philosophy, 3rd Ed., Translated from Latin by: Donald A. Cress</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward C. Mendler, <i>False Truths: The Error of Relying on Authority, p. 16</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heidegger [1938] (2002), p. 76 quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">Descartes... that which he himself founded... modern (and that means, at the same time, Western) metaphysics.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tad_Schmaltz" title="Tad Schmaltz">Schmaltz, Tad M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pIYcUBCOrNgC&amp;pg=PA27"><i>Radical Cartesianism: The French Reception of Descartes</i></a> p.27 quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">The Descartes most familiar to twentieth-century philosophers is the Descartes of the first two <i>Meditations</i>, someone proccupied with hyperbolic doubt of the material world and the certainty of knowledge of the self that emerges from the famous cogito argument.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wood_Sellars" title="Roy Wood Sellars">Roy Wood Sellars</a> (1949) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y1wNAAAAIAAJ"><i>Philosophy for the future: the quest of modern materialism</i></a> quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">Husserl has taken Descartes very seriously in a historical as well as in a systematic sense [...] [in <i>The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology</i>, Husserl] finds in the first two Meditations of Descartes a depth which it is difficult to fathom, and which Descartes himself was so little able to appreciate that he let go "the great discovery" he had in his hands.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Heidegger1938emancipated-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heidegger1938emancipated_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Heidegger [1938] (2002) <i>The Age of the World Picture</i> quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">For up to Descartes...a particular <i>sub-iectum</i>...lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a <i>sub-iectum</i>...arises out of the claim of man to a...self-supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ingraffia95p126-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ingraffia95p126_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LHjZYbOLG8cC&amp;pg=PA126"><i>Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow</i></a> p.126</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman K. Swazo (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=INP_cy6Mu7EC&amp;pg=PA97"><i>Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections</i></a> pp.97–9</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Lovitt77pxxv-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lovitt77pxxv_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovitt77pxxv_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovitt77pxxv_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lovitt, Tom (1977) introduction to Martin Heidegger's <i>The question concerning technology, and other essays</i>, pp.xxv-xxvi</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Briton, Derek <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd_xwb6EolMC&amp;pg=PA76"><i>The modern practice of adult education: a postmodern critique</i></a> p.76</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Heidegger <i>The Word of Nietzsche: God is Dead</i> pp.88–90</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Heidegger19382002p75-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heidegger19382002p75_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heidegger [1938] (2002), p. 75 quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">With the interpretation of man as <i>subiectum</i>, Descartes creates the metaphysical presupposition for future anthropology of every kind and tendency.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Isadore Schwart <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wt4XDLEpjWYC&amp;pg=PA95"><i>China and Other Matters</i></a> p.95 quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">...&#160;the kind of anthropocentric subjectivism which has emerged from the Cartesian revolution.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Guignon" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles B. Guignon">Charles B. Guignon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5vFCfdWD5QEC&amp;pg=PA23"><i>Heidegger and the problem of knowledge</i></a> p.23</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl, Edmund</a> (1931) <i><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_Meditations:_An_Introduction_to_Phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology">Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology</a></i> quotation:</span>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><span class="reference-text">When, with the beginning of modern times, religious belief was becoming more and more externalized as a lifeless convention, men of intellect were lifted by a new belief: their great belief in an autonomous philosophy and science. [...] in philosophy, the <i>Meditations</i> were epoch-making in a quite unique sense, and precisely because of their going back to the pure <i>ego cogito</i>. Descartes, in fact, inaugurates an entirely new kind of philosophy. Changing its total style, philosophy takes a radical turn: from naïve objectivism to transcendental subjectivism.</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">René Descartes, <i>Discourse de la Méthode</i> (Leiden, Netherlands): Jan Maire, 1637, appended book: <i>La Géométrie</i>, book one, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86069594/f383.image">page 299.</a> From page 299: <i>" ... Et</i> aa<i>, ou</i> a<i><sup>2</sup>, pour multiplier</i> a <i>par soy mesme; Et</i> a<i><sup>3</sup>, pour le multiplier encore une fois par</i> a<i>, &amp; ainsi a l'infini&#160;; ... "</i> ( ... and <i>aa</i>, or <i>a</i><sup>2</sup>, in order to multiply <i>a</i> by itself; and <i>a</i><sup>3</sup>, in order to multiply it once more by <i>a</i>, and thus to infinity&#160;; ... )</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Sorell, <i>Descartes: A Very Short Introduction</i> (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 19.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kline" title="Morris Kline">Morris Kline</a>, <i>Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times</i> (1972). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 280–281</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Gullberg" title="Jan Gullberg">Gullberg, Jan</a> (1997). <i>Mathematics From The Birth of Numbers</i>. W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04002-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04002-X">0-393-04002-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Jan&amp;rft.aulast=Gullberg&amp;rft.btitle=Mathematics+From+The+Birth+of+Numbers&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-393-04002-X&amp;rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Tipler, P. A. and G. Mosca (2004). <i>Physics For Scientists And Engineers</i>. W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-4389-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-4389-2">0-7167-4389-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+A.+and+G.+Mosca&amp;rft.aulast=Tipler&amp;rft.btitle=Physics+For+Scientists+And+Engineers&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7167-4389-2&amp;rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555262/Rene_Descartes.html#s3">"René Descartes"</a>. <i>Encarta</i>. Microsoft. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Encarta&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_761555262%2FRene_Descartes.html%23s3&amp;rft.pub=Microsoft&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Contemporary Newtonian Research</i>, edited by Z. Bechler, p. 109-129, <i>Newton the Mathematician</i>, by Daniel T. Whiteside, Springer, 1982.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cottingham, John, Dugald Murdoch, and Robert Stoothof. <i>The Philosophical Writings of Descartes.</i>Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1985. 293.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Vlasblom, Dirk (25 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2492445.ece/Unknown_letter_from_Descartes_found">"Unknown letter from Descartes found"</a>. Nrc.nl<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Dirk&amp;rft.aulast=Vlasblom&amp;rft.btitle=Unknown+letter+from+Descartes+found&amp;rft.date=2010-02-25&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.nl%2Finternational%2Farticle2492445.ece%2FUnknown_letter_from_Descartes_found&amp;rft.pub=Nrc.nl&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(Dutch)</span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrc.nl/wetenschap/article2491995.ece/Hoe_Descartes_in_1641_op_andere_gedachten_kwam">" Hoe Descartes in 1641 op andere gedachten kwam – Onbekende brief van Franse filosoof gevonden"</a></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Collected_works">Collected works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Collected works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul>
<li><i>Oeuvres de Descartes</i> edited by Charles Adam and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Tannery" title="Paul Tannery">Paul Tannery</a>, Paris: Léopold Cerf, 1897–1913, 13 volumes; new revised edition, Paris: Vrin-CNRS, 1964–1974, 11 volumes (the first 5 volumes contains the correspondence). [This edition is traditionally cited with the initials <i>AT</i> (for Adam and Tannery) followed by a volume number in Roman numerals; thus <i>AT VII</i> refers to <i>Oeuvres de Descartes</i> volume 7.]</li>
<li><i>Étude du bon sens, La recherche de la vérité et autres écrits de jeunesse (1616–1631)</i> edited by Vincent Carraud and Gilles Olivo, Paris: PUF, 2013.</li>
<li>Descartes, <i>Œuvres complètes</i>, new edition by Jean-Marie Beyssade and Denis Kambouchner, Paris: Gallimard, published volumes:
<ul>
<li>III: <i>Discours de la Méthode et Essais</i>, 2009.</li>
<li>VIII.1: <i>Correspondance, 1</i> edited by Jean-Robert Armogathe, 2013.</li>
<li>VIII.2: <i>Correspondance, 2</i> edited by Jean-Robert Armogathe, 2013.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><i>René Descartes. Opere 1637-1649</i>, Milano, Bompiani, 2009, pp. 2531. Edizione integrale (di prime edizioni) e traduzione italiana a fronte, a cura di G. Belgioioso con la collaborazione di I. Agostini, M. Marrone, M. Savini <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788845263323" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-88-452-6332-3</a>.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><i>René Descartes. Opere 1650-2009</i>, Milano, Bompiani, 2009, pp.1723. Edizione integrale delle opere postume e traduzione italiana a fronte, a cura di G. Belgioioso con la collaborazione di I. Agostini, M. Marrone, M. Savini <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788845263330" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-88-452-6333-0</a>.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><i>René Descartes. Tutte le lettere 1619-1650</i>, Milano, Bompiani, 2009 IIa ed., pp. 3104. Nuova edizione integrale dell'epistolario cartesiano con traduzione italiana a fronte, a cura di G. Belgioioso con la collaborazione di I. Agostini, M. Marrone, F. A. Meschini, M. Savini e J.-R. Armogathe <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788845234224" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-88-452-3422-4</a>.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><i>René Descartes, Isaac Beeckman, Marin Mersenne. Lettere 1619-1648</i>, Milano, Bompiani, 2015 pp.1696. Edizione integrale con traduzione italiana a fronte, a cura di Giulia Beglioioso e Jean Robert-Armogathe <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788845280719" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-88-452-8071-9</a>.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Specific_works">Specific works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Specific works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/philsci/id/14760"><i>Discours de la methode</i></a>, 1637</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/49760"><i>Renati Des-Cartes Principia philosophiæ</i></a>, 1644</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/42574"><i>Le monde de Mr. Descartes ou le traité de la lumiere</i></a>, 1664</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/math/id/13704"><i>Geometria</i></a>, 1659</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/philsci/id/31030"><i>Meditationes de prima philosophia</i></a>, 1670</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/philsci/id/33894"><i>Opera philosophica</i></a>, 1672</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Collected_English_translations">Collected English translations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Collected English translations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>1955. <i>The Philosophical Works</i>, E.S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross, trans. Dover Publications. This work is traditionally cited with the initials <i>HR</i> (for Haldane and Ross) followed by a volume number in Roman numerals; thus <i>HRII</i> refers to volume 2 of this edition.</li>
<li>1988. <i>The Philosophical Writings of Descartes</i> in 3 vols. Cottingham, J., Stoothoff, R., Kenny, A., and Murdoch, D., trans. Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>1998. <i>René Descartes: The World and Other Writings.</i> Translated and edited by Stephen Gaukroger. Cambridge University Press. (This consists mainly of scientific writings, on physics, biology, astronomy, optics, etc., which were very influential in the 17th and 18th centuries, but which are routinely omitted or much abridged in modern collections of Descartes’<i>philosophical</i> works.)</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Translation_of_single_works">Translation of single works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Translation of single works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>1628. <i>Regulae ad directionem ingenii. Rules for the Direction of the Natural Intelligence. A Bilingual Edition of the Cartesian Treatise on Method</i>, ed. and tr. by G. Heffernan, Amsterdam-Atlanta: Rodopi, 1998.</li>
<li>1633. <i>The World, or Treatise on Light</i>, tr. by Michael S. Mahoney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm">http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm</a></li>
<li>1633. <i>Treatise of Man</i>, tr. by T.S. Hall. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.</li>
<li>1637. <i>Discourse on the Method, Optics, Geometry and Meteorology</i>, tr. Paul J. Olscamp, Revised edition, Indianapolis: Hackett, 2001.</li>
<li>1637. <i>The Geometry of René Descartes</i>, tr. by David E. Smith and M. L. Lantham, New York: Dover, 1954.</li>
<li>1641. <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i>, tr. by J. Cottingham, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Latin original. Alternative English title: <i>Metaphysical Meditations</i>. Includes six <i>Objections and Replies</i>. A second edition published the following year, includes an additional <i>Objection and Reply</i> and a <i>Letter to Dinet</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wright.edu/cola/descartes/intro.html">HTML Online Latin-French-English Edition</a>.</li>
<li>1644. <i>Principles of Philosophy</i>, tr. by V. R. Miller and R. P. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1983.</li>
<li>1648. <i>Descartes' Conversation with Burman</i>, tr. by J. Cottingham, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.</li>
<li>1649. <i>Passions of the Soul</i>. tr. by S. H. Voss, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1989. Dedicated to Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia.</li>
<li>1619-1648. <i>René Descartes, Isaac Beeckman, Marin Mersenne. Lettere 1619-1648</i>, ed. by Giulia Beglioioso and Jean Robert-Armogathe, Milano, Bompiani, 2015 pp.&#160;1696. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788845280719" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-88-452-8071-9</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Secondary_literature">Secondary literature</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Secondary literature">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book">Agostini, Siegrid; Leblanc, Hélène, eds. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cartesius.net/doc/pubblicazioni/Examina_Philosophica_1.pdf"><i>Examina Philosophica. I Quaderni di Alvearium</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Le fondement de la science. Les dix premières années de la philosophie cartésienne (1619-1628)<i>.</i></cite><i><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Examina+Philosophica.+I+Quaderni+di+Alvearium&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cartesius.net%2Fdoc%2Fpubblicazioni%2FExamina_Philosophica_1.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></i></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Benjamin_Boyer" title="Carl Benjamin Boyer">Boyer, Carl</a> (1985). <i>A History of Mathematics</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02391-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02391-3">0-691-02391-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Carl&amp;rft.aulast=Boyer&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematics&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-691-02391-3&amp;rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Carriero, John (2008). <i>Between Two Worlds</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13561-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13561-8">978-0-691-13561-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Carriero&amp;rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-13561-8&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Clarke" title="Desmond Clarke">Clarke, Desmond</a> (2006). <i>Descartes: A Biography</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82301-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82301-3">0-521-82301-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Desmond&amp;rft.aulast=Clarke&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes%3A+A+Biography&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-82301-3&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Costabel, Pierre (1987). <i>René Descartes – Exercices pour les éléments des solides</i>. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-13-040099-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-13-040099-X">2-13-040099-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Pierre&amp;rft.aulast=Costabel&amp;rft.btitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes+%93+Exercices+pour+les+%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments+des+solides&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=2-13-040099-X&amp;rft.place=Paris&amp;rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_Cottingham" title="John Cottingham">Cottingham, John</a> (1992). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Descartes</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36696-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36696-8">0-521-36696-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Cottingham&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Descartes&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-36696-8&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Duncan, Steven M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lutterworth.com/jamesclarke/jc/titles/proofew.htm"><i>The Proof of the External World: Cartesian Theism and the Possibility of Knowledge</i></a>. Cambridge: James Clarke &amp; Co. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-02271-7267-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-02271-7267-4">978-02271-7267-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Duncan&amp;rft.btitle=The+Proof+of+the+External+World%3A+Cartesian+Theism+and+the+Possibility+of+Knowledge&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lutterworth.com%2Fjamesclarke%2Fjc%2Ftitles%2Fproofew.htm&amp;rft.isbn=978-02271-7267-4&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=James+Clarke+%26+Co&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Farrell, John. "Demons of Descartes and Hobbes." <i>Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau</i> (Cornell UP, 2006), chapter 7.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Garber, Daniel (1992). <i>Descartes' Metaphysical Physics</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-28219-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-28219-8">0-226-28219-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rft.aulast=Garber&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes%27+Metaphysical+Physics&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-28219-8&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Garber, Daniel; <a href="/wiki/Michael_R._Ayers" title="Michael R. Ayers">Ayers, Michael</a> (1998). <i>The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Philosophy</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-53721-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-53721-5">0-521-53721-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.au=Ayers%2C+Michael&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rft.aulast=Garber&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Seventeenth-Century+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-53721-5&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gaukroger" title="Stephen Gaukroger">Gaukroger, Stephen</a> (1995). <i>Descartes: An Intellectual Biography</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-823994-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-823994-7">0-19-823994-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Stephen&amp;rft.aulast=Gaukroger&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes%3A+An+Intellectual+Biography&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-823994-7&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Gillespie, A. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stir.academia.edu/documents/0011/0112/Gillespie_Descartes_demon_a_dialogical_analysis_of_meditations_on_first_philosophy.pdf">Descartes' demon: A dialogical analysis of 'Meditations on First Philosophy.'</a> Theory &amp; Psychology, 16, 761–781.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/A._C._Grayling" title="A. C. Grayling">Grayling, A.C.</a> (2005). <i>Descartes: The Life and times of a Genius</i>. New York: Walker Publishing Co., Inc. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-1501-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8027-1501-X">0-8027-1501-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=A.C.&amp;rft.aulast=Grayling&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes%3A+The+Life+and+times+of+a+Genius&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-8027-1501-X&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Walker+Publishing+Co.%2C+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger, Martin</a> [1938] (2002) <i>The Age of the World Picture</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QImd2ARqQPMC&amp;pg=PA66"><i>Off the beaten track</i></a> pp.&#160;57–85</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Keeling, S. V. (1968). <i>Descartes</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=S.+V.&amp;rft.aulast=Keeling&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes&amp;rft.date=1968&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Melchert" title="Norman Melchert">Melchert, Norman</a> (2002). <i>The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy</i>. New York: McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517510-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-517510-7">0-19-517510-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Norman&amp;rft.aulast=Melchert&amp;rft.btitle=The+Great+Conversation%3A+A+Historical+Introduction+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-517510-7&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Moreno Romo, Juan Carlos, <i>Vindicación del cartesianismo radical</i>, Anthropos, Barcelona, 2010.</li>
<li>Moreno Romo, Juan Carlos (Coord.), <i>Descartes vivo. Ejercicios de hermenéutica cartesiana</i>, Anthropos, Barcelona, 2007'</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Naaman-Zauderer, Noa (2010). <i>Descartes' Deontological Turn: Reason, Will and Virtue in the Later Writings</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76330-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76330-1">978-0-521-76330-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Noa&amp;rft.aulast=Naaman-Zauderer&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes%27+Deontological+Turn%3A+Reason%2C+Will+and+Virtue+in+the+Later+Writings&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-76330-1&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri, Antonio</a> (2007) <i>The Political Descartes</i>, Verso.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Ozaki, Makoto (1991). <i>Kartenspiel, oder Kommentar zu den Meditationen des Herrn Descartes</i>. Berlin: Klein Verlag. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-927199-01-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-927199-01-X">3-927199-01-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Makoto&amp;rft.aulast=Ozaki&amp;rft.btitle=Kartenspiel%2C+oder+Kommentar+zu+den+Meditationen+des+Herrn+Descartes&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3-927199-01-X&amp;rft.place=Berlin&amp;rft.pub=Klein+Verlag.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Schäfer, Rainer (2006). <i>Zweifel und Sein – Der Ursprung des modernen Selbstbewusstseins in Descartes' cogito</i>. Wuerzburg: Koenigshausen&amp;Neumann. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8260-3202-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-8260-3202-0">3-8260-3202-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Rainer&amp;rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4fer&amp;rft.btitle=Zweifel+und+Sein+%93+Der+Ursprung+des+modernen+Selbstbewusstseins+in+Descartes%27+cogito&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3-8260-3202-0&amp;rft.place=Wuerzburg&amp;rft.pub=Koenigshausen%26Neumann&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Serfati, Michel, 2005, "Géometrie" in <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Grattan-Guinness" title="Ivor Grattan-Guinness">Ivor Grattan-Guinness</a>, ed., <i>Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics</i>. Elsevier: 1–22.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Sorrell, Tom (1987). <i>Descartes</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-287636-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-287636-8">0-19-287636-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Tom&amp;rft.aulast=Sorrell&amp;rft.btitle=Descartes&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-287636-8&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Vrooman, Jack Rochford (1970). <i>René Descartes: A Biography</i>. Putnam Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Jack+Rochford&amp;rft.aulast=Vrooman&amp;rft.btitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes%3A+A+Biography&amp;rft.date=1970&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Putnam+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Watson_(philosopher)" title="Richard Watson (philosopher)">Watson, Richard A.</a> (31 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes">"René Descartes"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Watson&amp;rft.date=2012-03-31&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F158787%2FRene-Descartes&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Watson, Richard A. (2007). Cogito, Ergo Sum: a life of René Descartes. David R Godine. 2002, reprint 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781567923353" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-56792-335-3</a>. Was chosen by the New York Public library as one of "25 Books to Remember from 2002"</li>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Woo, B. Hoon (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3325870/_The_Understanding_of_Gisbertus_Voetius_and_Rene_Descartes_on_the_Relationship_of_Faith_and_Reason_and_Theology_and_Philosophy_Westminster_Theological_Journal_75_no._1_2013_45-63">"The Understanding of Gisbertus Voetius and René Descartes on the Relationship of Faith and Reason, and Theology and Philosophy"</a>. <i>Westminster Theological Journal</i> <b>75</b> (1): 45–63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=The+Understanding+of+Gisbertus+Voetius+and+Ren%C3%A9+Descartes+on+the+Relationship+of+Faith+and+Reason%2C+and+Theology+and+Philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=B.+Hoon&amp;rft.aulast=Woo&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3325870%2F_The_Understanding_of_Gisbertus_Voetius_and_Rene_Descartes_on_the_Relationship_of_Faith_and_Reason_and_Theology_and_Philosophy_Westminster_Theological_Journal_75_no._1_2013_45-63&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Westminster+Theological+Journal&amp;rft.pages=45-63&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=75" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" class="extiw" title="s:Author:René Descartes">René Descartes</a></i></b></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article <i><b><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Descartes,_Ren%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Descartes, René">Descartes, René</a></b></i>.</td>
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<p><b>General</b></p>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Descartes,+René">Works by René Descartes</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Descartes%2C%20René%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22René%20Descartes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Descartes%2C%20René%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22René%20Descartes%22%20OR%20title%3A%22René%20Descartes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Descartes%2C%20René%22%20OR%20description%3A%22René%20Descartes%22%20OR%20%22Descartes%2C%20Rene%22%20OR%20%22Rene%20Descartes%22%29%20OR%20%28%221596-1650%22%20AND%20Descartes%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about René Descartes</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librivox.org/author/4158">Works by René Descartes</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" width="15" height="15" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Descartes.html">Detailed biography of Descartes at MacTutor</a></li>
<li><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" />&#160;<cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "<a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/René Descartes">René Descartes</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARen%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.atitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freewebs.com/dqsdnlj/d.html">John Cottingham translation of <i>Meditations</i> and <i>Objections and Replies</i>.</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/modlangfrench/20/">René Descartes (1596–1650)</a> Published in <i>Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition</i> (1996)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com">A site containing Descartes's main works, including correspondence, slightly modified for easier reading</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/descartesphiloso010838mbp">Descartes Philosophical Writings tr. by Norman Kemp Smith</a> at archive.org</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studiesincartes00smitgoog">Studies in the Cartesian philosophy (1902) by Norman Kemp Smith</a> at archive.org</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophicalwor005524mbp">The Philosophical Works Of Descartes Volume II (1934)</a> at archive.org</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money5.htm">Descartes featured on the 100 French Franc banknote from 1942.</a></li>
<li><a href="http://imslp.org/wiki/Category:Descartes,_Ren%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="scores:Category:Descartes, René">Free scores by René Descartes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/International_Music_Score_Library_Project" title="International Music Score Library Project">International Music Score Library Project</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genealogy.ams.org/id.php?id=125358">René Descartes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cartesius.net">Centro Interdipartimentale di Studi su Descartes e il Seicento</a></li>
</ul>
<p><b>Bibliographies</b></p>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cartesius.net/menu-demo/bibliografia-cartesiana"><i>Bibliografia cartesiana/Bibliographie cartésienne on-line (1997-2012)</i></a></li>
</ul>
<p><b>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes/">Descartes</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-works/">Life and works</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/">Epistemology</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-mathematics/">Mathematics</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-physics/">Physics</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-ethics/">Ethics</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-modal/">Modal Metaphysics</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-ontological/">Ontological Argument</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-ideas/">Theory of Ideas</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pineal-gland/">Pineal Gland</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-works/history.html">Law Thesis</a></p>
<p><b>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/descarte/">Descartes</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/desc-sci/">Scientific Method</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/descmind/">Mind-Body Distinction</a></p>
<p><b>Other</b></p>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44h9QuWcJYk"><i>Bernard Williams interviewed about Descartes on "Men of ideas"</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=8404">René Descartes</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Find_a_Grave" title="Find a Grave">Find a Grave</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">René Descartes</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">Genetic epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representative_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Representative realism">Representative realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" title="Speculative reason">Speculative reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alethiology" title="Alethiology">Alethiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-epistemology" title="Meta-epistemology">Meta-epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Epistemology" title="Portal:Epistemology">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain" title="Alexander Bain">Bain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Chandra_Bhattacharya" title="Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya">Bhattacharya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Block</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Broad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Burge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">Chalmers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Churchland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Descartes</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">McDowell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Minsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Turing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_Parallelism" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychophysical Parallelism">Parallelism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">identity theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representational_theory_of_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Representational theory of mind">Representational</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept_and_object" title="Concept and object">Concept and object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ingenuity" title="Ingenuity">Ingenuity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">Intuition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_process" title="Mental process">Mental process</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_property" title="Mental property">Mental property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_mind_articles" title="Index of philosophy of mind articles">more...</a></i></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mind_and_brain" title="Portal:Mind and brain">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">Theory choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">Theory-ladenness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Metatheory_of_science" title="Category:Metatheory of science">Metatheory<br />
of science</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li>{<a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a>}</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Philosophy of</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">thermal and statistical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">Motion</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_environment" title="Philosophy of environment">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">Related topics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a> by era</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Ancient</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurians</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">René Descartes</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Classical modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Late modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy_of_science" title="Portal:Philosophy of science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
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<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_religion&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Religious belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit" title="Spirit">Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Conceptions of God</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian view of God">Aristotelian view</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maltheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltheism">Maltheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Being" title="Supreme Being">Supreme Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="God in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kal%C4%81m_cosmological_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Kal?m cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_Universe" title="Fine-tuned Universe">Fine-tuning of the Universe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_Wager" title="Pascal's Wager">Pascal's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_a_proper_basis" title="Argument from a proper basis">Proper basis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 Gambit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnostic_existentialism" title="Agnostic existentialism">Agnostic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language-game_(philosophy)" title="Language-game (philosophy)">Language-game</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />
of religion</a></div>
<br />
(by date active)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Ancient<br />
and<br />
Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Enlightenment</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">René Descartes</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />
1850</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />
1900</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W. K. Clifford</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />
postwar</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />
1990<br />
2010</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions" title="History of religions">History of religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_science_of_religion" title="Political science of religion">Political science of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><b><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></b></li>
<li><b><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/41838958">WorldCat Identities</a></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Virtual_International_Authority_File" title="Virtual International Authority File">VIAF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/41838958">41838958</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79061201">n79061201</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Name_Identifier" title="International Standard Name Identifier">ISNI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isni.org/isni/0000000121296144">0000 0001 2129 6144</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/118524844">118524844</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/LIBRIS" title="LIBRIS">SELIBR</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//libris.kb.se/auth/183696">183696</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_universitaire_de_documentation" title="Système universitaire de documentation">SUDOC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idref.fr/027287165">027287165</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11899775j">cb11899775j</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11899775j">(data)</a></span></span></li>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A8%E1%8A%94_%E1%8B%B4%E1%8A%AB%E1%88%AD%E1%89%B5" title="ረኔ ዴካርት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="رينيه ديكارت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene_Dekart" title="Rene Dekart – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4" title="রনে দেকার?ত – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D_%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Р?н? Д?карт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D_%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Р?н? Д?карт – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo"><a href="//bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%8F%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8D" title="རོས་ནེ་དེ་?ར་?ེ? – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – бур?ад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Бур?ад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="//ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AD_%CE%9D%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84" title="Ρενέ ?τεκά?τ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="//ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="رنه دکارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="//fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%85%92" title="笛?兒 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A5%B4%EB%84%A4_%EB%8D%B0%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4%ED%8A%B8" title="르네 ?카르트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5_%D4%B4%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF" title="Ռենե Դեկարտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="रेने देकार?त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesio" title="Cartesio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%93%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%98" title="רנה דק?רט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86_%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%86" title="ರೆನೆ ಡೆಸ?ಕಾರ?ಟೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam"><a href="//pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="რენე დეკ?რტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw"><a href="//rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw">Kinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="//ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene_Descartes" title="Rene Descartes – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Декарт, Рене – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lrc"><a href="//lrc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%A6_%D8%AF%D8%A6%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="رئنئ دئکارت – Northern Luri" lang="lrc" hreflang="lrc">لۊری شومالی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renatus_Cartesius" title="Renatus Cartesius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C4%93_Dekarts" title="Renē Dekarts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/rynes_dekart" title="rynes dekart – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="റെനെ ദെക?കാർത?ത? – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a href="//mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="रेने देकार?त – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf"><a href="//xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="რენე დეკ?რტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf">მ?რგ?ლური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="رينيه ديكارت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn"><a href="//mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="رنه دکارت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn">ماز?رونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%94%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%92%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7" title="ရနေး ဒေးကာ့ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="//nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – N?huatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">N?huatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D" title="रेने देस?कार?तेस? – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8D%E3%83%BB%E3%83%87%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88" title="ル?・デカルト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Декарт, Рене – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4" title="ਰੇਨੇ ਦੇਕਾਰਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%92_%DA%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%B9" title="رینے ڈیکارٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renei_Deikaat" title="Renei Deikaat – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="//pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="//kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Декарт, Рене – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="रने देकार?त – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesiu" title="Cartesiu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A" title="රෙනේ ඩෙක?ට් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%8E_%D8%AF%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ڕێنێ دێکارت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%87_%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D" title="ரெனே டேக?கார?ட? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%95" title="เรอเน เด?าร์ต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Рене Декарт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%92_%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="رینے دیکارت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo"><a href="//vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes%27i_Ren%C3%A9" title="Descartes'i René – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%85%92" title="笛?兒 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A2_%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%98" title="רענע דעק?רט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="//yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%85%92" title="笛?兒 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="//diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="//bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%86%85%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" title="勒内·笛?尔 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="रने देकार?त – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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