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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Political philosophy</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">"Political Theory" redirects here. For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)">Political Theory (journal)</a>.</div>
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<a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (right), from a detail of <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, a fresco by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>. Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> and Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.</div>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">a series</a> on</td>
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<p><b>Political philosophy</b>, or <b>political theory</b>, is the study of topics such as <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and the enforcement of a <a href="/wiki/Legal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal code">legal code</a> by <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what, if anything, makes a <a href="/wiki/The_purpose_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="The purpose of government">government legitimate</a>, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.</p>
<p>In a <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> sense, the term "political philosophy" often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term "<a href="/wiki/Political_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Political ideology">political ideology</a>".</p>
<p>Political philosophy is considered by some to be a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>; however, the name generally attributed to this form of political enquiry is political theory, a discipline which has a closer methodology to the theoretical fields in the social sciences (like <a href="/wiki/Economic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic theory">economic theory</a>) than to philosophical argumentation (like that of <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>).</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ancient_traditions"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient traditions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ancient_China"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Ancient_Greece"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Greece</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Ancient_India"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient India</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Medieval_Christianity"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval Christianity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Saint_Augustine"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Saint Augustine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#St._Thomas_Aquinas"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">St. Thomas Aquinas</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Islamic_Golden_Age"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Islamic Golden Age</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Mutazilite_vs._Asharite"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mutazilite vs. Asharite</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Ibn_Khaldun"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ibn Khaldun</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Medieval_Europe"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval Europe</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#European_Renaissance"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">European Renaissance</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Niccol.C3.B2_Machiavelli"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Niccolò Machiavelli</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#European_Enlightenment"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">European Enlightenment</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#John_Locke"><span class="tocnumber">1.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">John Locke</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Industrialization_and_the_Modern_Era"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Industrialization and the Modern Era</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Contemporary_political_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary political philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Influential_political_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Influential political philosophers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_traditions">Ancient traditions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient traditions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient China">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Chinese political philosophy dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring and Autumn Period">Spring and Autumn Period</a>, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring and Autumn Period">Spring and Autumn Period</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. The major philosophies during the period, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Agrarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocratic</a> government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> government based on <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/draconian" class="extiw" title="wikt:draconian">draconian</a> punishments and laws. <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on <a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">frugality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ascetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascetism">ascetism</a>. The Agrarians advocated a peasant <a href="/wiki/Utopian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian">utopian</a> <a href="/wiki/Communalism" title="Communalism">communalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Taoism advocated a proto-<a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin Dynasty">Qin Dynasty</a>, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the <a href="/wiki/Han_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Dynasty">Han Dynasty</a>. Prior to China's adoption of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahakian_1993_59-3">[3]</a></sup> Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: <a href="/wiki/Timocracy" title="Timocracy">timocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's <i>Republic</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahakian_1993_59-3">[3]</a></sup> which was followed by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nichomachean_Ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nichomachean Ethics">Nichomachean Ethics</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)"><i>Politics</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Roman political philosophy was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, including the Roman statesman <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_India">Ancient India</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Ancient India">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. <i>Mantranga,</i> the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a>, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a> provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> An example of a <a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">code of law</a> in ancient India is the <a href="/wiki/Manusm%E1%B9%9Bti" class="mw-redirect" title="Manusmṛti">Manusmṛti</a> or <a href="/wiki/Manu_Smriti" title="Manu Smriti">Laws of Manu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_Christianity">Medieval Christianity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Medieval Christianity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div class="thumbimage" style="height:294px;overflow:hidden"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/167px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg" width="167" height="294" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/251px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/334px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2779" /></div>
<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></div>
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<div class="thumbimage" style="height:294px;overflow:hidden"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/192px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg" width="192" height="294" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/288px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/384px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="743" /></div>
<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Saint_Augustine">Saint Augustine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Saint Augustine">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The early <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderatation of the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and theory of <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying <a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">mercy</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Moral_example" title="Moral example">moral example</a>. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the <a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)">City of God</a> (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (<a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">Civitas</a> Terrena). Augustine's <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)">City of God</a></i> is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="St._Thomas_Aquinas">St. Thomas Aquinas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: St. Thomas Aquinas">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> meticulously dealt with the varieties of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">law</a>. According to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law:</p>
<ol>
<li>Eternal law ("the divine government of everything")</li>
<li>Divine positive law (having been "posited" by God; external to human nature)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> (the right way of living discoverable by natural reason; what cannot-not be known; internal to human nature)</li>
<li>Human law (what we commonly call "<a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>"—including <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Customary law">customary law</a>; the law of the <i><a href="/wiki/Communitas_Perfecta" title="Communitas Perfecta">Communitas Perfecta</a></i>)</li>
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<p>Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)" title="Canon law (Catholic Church)">canon law</a>. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of canon law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework.</p>
<p>Aquinas was an incredibly influential thinker in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural Law tradition</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Islamic_Golden_Age">Islamic Golden Age</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Islamic Golden Age">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mutazilite_vs._Asharite">Mutazilite vs. Asharite</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Mutazilite vs. Asharite">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, based on both the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a> emphasized an inexorable link between <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and the process of <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a> to find <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>—in effect <i>all</i> philosophy was "<a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">political</a>" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" <a href="/wiki/Mutazilite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilite">Mutazilite</a> philosophers, who held a more <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenic</a> view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first <a href="/wiki/Speculative_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative philosophy">speculative</a> theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" <a href="/wiki/Asharite" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharite">Asharite</a> view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic political philosophy</a>, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>—i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus), <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (Abunaser), <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">İbn Sina</a> (Avicenna), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a> (Avempace), <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a> (Averroes), and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a>, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., <a href="/wiki/Ibadah" title="Ibadah">ibadah</a> (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and <a href="/wiki/Ilah" title="Ilah">ilah</a> (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulama</a> posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> in the very early years of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Islamic history</a> on <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Khilafa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>, or that of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Imamah" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah">Imamah</a> are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Ehl-i Sunna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ibn_Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Ibn Khaldun">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The 14th century <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a> considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, "...an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself," the best in the history of political theory. For Ibn Khaldun, government should be restrained to a minimum for as a necessary evil, it is the constraint of men by other men.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> political philosophy in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> was heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> thinking in that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholics</a> though subordinating <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> who helped reintroduce <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s works, which had only been transmitted to <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> through <a href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, along with the commentaries of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<p>Medieval political philosophers, such as Aquinas in <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>, developed the idea that a king who is a tyrant is no king at all and could be overthrown.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, viewed by many as a cornerstone of Anglo-American political liberty, explicitly proposes the right to revolt against the ruler for justice sake. Other documents similar to Magna Carta are found in other European countries such as Spain and Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="European_Renaissance">European Renaissance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: European Renaissance">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. While the Middle Ages did see secular politics in practice under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, the academic field was wholly <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> and therefore Christian in nature.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Niccol.C3.B2_Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Niccolò Machiavelli">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i>, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Discorsi_sopra_la_prima_deca_di_Tito_Livio" class="mw-redirect" title="Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio">The Discourses</a></i>, a rigorous analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical period</a>, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a> rather than the <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> of the di <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> and somewhat <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequentialist">consequentialist</a> view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, well known for his theory of the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a>. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="European_Enlightenment">European Enlightenment</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: European Enlightenment">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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Eugène Delacroix's <i><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People" title="Liberty Leading the People">Liberty Leading the People</a></i> (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.</div>
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<p>During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> period, new theories about what the human was and is and about the definition of reality and the way it was perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>) led to new questions and insights by such thinkers as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>.</p>
<p>These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, although some political scientists, philosophers, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">historians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropologists</a> have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of <a href="/wiki/Natural_order_(philosophy)" title="Natural order (philosophy)">natural order</a> was not introduced, the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> could not evolve independently of <a href="/wiki/Theistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theistic">theistic</a> thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<p>Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a> was subordinated to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> churches subordinate to each <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a>, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Arouet_de_Voltaire" class="mw-redirect" title="François Marie Arouet de Voltaire">François Marie Arouet de Voltaire</a>, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> and the advanced civilizations of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" title="Aztec">Aztec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohican" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohican">Mohican</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Huron</a> and especially the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>: for example, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> was a great admirer of some of the methods of the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquois Confederacy">Iroquois Confederacy</a>, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="John_Locke">John Locke</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: John Locke">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i>. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a>'s paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a> became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Industrialization_and_the_Modern_Era">Industrialization and the Modern Era</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Industrialization and the Modern Era">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marxist</a> critique of capitalism — developed with <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">industrial revolution</a> produced a parallel revolution in political thought. <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Socialism">socialist movement</a> began to form. In the mid-19th century, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> was developed, and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>. Though <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>'s philosophy of history is similar to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Unlike Marx who believed in <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, Hegel believed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> By the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a> were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, with thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">syndicalism</a> also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism</a> began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a> (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> - and in particular the political theory of <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a>, but also on a smaller level <a href="/wiki/Luxemburgism" title="Luxemburgism">Luxemburgism</a> (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democratic</a> parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> However, a group of central European economists led by <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a> economists <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> identified the <a href="/wiki/Collectivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivist">collectivist</a> underpinnings to the various new <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> doctrines of government power as being different brands of political <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_political_philosophy">Contemporary political philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Contemporary political philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>From the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> until 1971, when <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i>, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and <a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">behavioralism</a>. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> dominating the field. This was the time of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a>, and the victories of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, as well as the events of <a href="/wiki/May_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1968">May 1968</a> led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Eric Voegelin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Shklar" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith Shklar">Judith Shklar</a>—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a> remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>) to political issues. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGBT_social_movements" title="LGBT social movements">LGBT social movements</a> and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial">postcolonial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Multicultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicultural">multicultural</a> thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> by philosophers <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Mills" title="Charles W. Mills">Charles W. Mills</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Racial_Contract" title="The Racial Contract">The Racial Contract</a></i> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carole_Patemen&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Carole Patemen (page does not exist)">Carole Patemen</a> in her book <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Sexual_Contract&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="The Sexual Contract (page does not exist)">The Sexual Contract</a></i> that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.</p>
<p>In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>'s 1974 book <i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a></i>, which won a <a href="/wiki/National_Book_Award" title="National Book Award">National Book Award</a>, responded to Rawls from a <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup></p>
<p>Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>, thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> and on a "return to <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lefort" title="Claude Lefort">Claude Lefort</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationists</a> were more influenced by Hegel; <a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a>, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of <a href="/wiki/Commodity_fetishism" title="Commodity fetishism">commodity fetishism</a> to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.</p>
<p>Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a>-<a href="/wiki/Communitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Communitarian">communitarian</a> debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_A._Bell" title="Daniel A. Bell">Daniel A. Bell</a>) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>.</p>
<p>A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the <a href="/wiki/Capability_approach" title="Capability approach">capability approach</a>. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>'s positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike liberals who understand liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of anyother person. To a liberal, a slave who is not interfered with may be free, yet to a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Skinner" title="Quentin Skinner">Quentin Skinner</a>, jurist <a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a>, and political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Philip Pettit</a>. The capability approach, pioneered by economists <a href="/wiki/Mahbub_ul_Haq" title="Mahbub ul Haq">Mahbub ul Haq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> and further developed by legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it.</p>
<p>Current emphasis on "commoditization of the everyday" has been decried by many contemporary theorists, some of them arguing the full brunt of it would be felt in ten years' time. "Pricing" such ethical categories like personal relations or sex, though always present, pushed by media agenda, is thus seen as crossing boundaries and having adverse societal and philosophical consequences.</p>
<p>Fruitful interaction exists between political philosophers and <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>. The rise of globalization has created the need for an international normative framework, and political theory has moved to fill the gap, with actual politics sadly regressing<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</p>
<p>One of the most prominent subjects in recent political philosophy has been the theory of <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">deliberative democracy</a>. The seminal work is by Jurgen Habermas in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> but the most extensive literature has been in English, led by theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Jane_Mansbridge" title="Jane Mansbridge">Jane Mansbridge</a>, Joshua Cohen, Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Influential_political_philosophers">Influential political philosophers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Influential political philosophers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>A larger <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">list of political philosophers</a> is intended to be closer to exhaustive. Listed below are some of the most <a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">canonical</a> or important thinkers, and especially philosophers whose central focus was in political philosophy and/or who are good representatives of a particular school of thought.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>: In synthesizing Christian theology and Peripatetic (Aristotelian) teaching in his <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i>, Aquinas contends that God's gift of higher reason—manifest in human law by way of the divine virtues—gives way to the assembly of righteous government.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>: Wrote his <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> as an extension of his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>. Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals. His political theory is based upon an ethics of <a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(philosophy)" title="Perfectionism (philosophy)">perfectionism</a> (as is <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a>'s, on some readings).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a>: After <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Joseph Proudhon">Pierre Joseph Proudhon</a>, Bakunin became the most important political philosopher of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>. His specific version of anarchism is called <a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">collectivist anarchism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>: The first thinker to analyze social justice in terms of maximization of aggregate individual benefits. Founded the philosophical/ethical school of thought known as <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>: Developed the distinction between positive and negative liberty.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>: Irish member of the British parliament, Burke is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the French revolution. Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>: The first thinker to relate ethics to the political order.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Connolly" title="William E. Connolly">William E. Connolly</a>: Helped introduce postmodern philosophy into political theory, and promoted new theories of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agonistic_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Agonistic democracy">agonistic democracy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>: Co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a> and analyzed the essential role of education in the maintenance of democratic government.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a>: The major figure of the Chinese Fajia (<a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a>) school, advocated government that adhered to laws and a strict method of administration.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>: Critiqued the modern conception of power on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Prison%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Prison–industrial complex">prison complex</a> and other prohibitive institutions, such as those that designate sexuality, madness and knowledge as the roots of their infrastructure, a critique that demonstrated that subjection is the power formation of subjects in any linguistic forum and that revolution cannot just be thought as the reversal of power between classes.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>: Instigated the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a></i>. Argued that the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> and the ruling class uses <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> to gain the consent of the classes it rules over.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hill_Green" title="Thomas Hill Green">Thomas Hill Green</a>: Modern liberal thinker and early supporter of <a href="/wiki/Positive_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive freedom">positive freedom</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>: Contemporary democratic theorist and sociologist. He has pioneered such concepts as the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communicative_action" title="Communicative action">communicative action</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">deliberative democracy</a>. His early work was heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>: He argued that central planning was inefficient because members of central bodies could not know enough to match the preferences of consumers and workers with existing conditions. Hayek further argued that <a href="/wiki/Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">central economic planning</a>—a mainstay of socialism—would lead to a "total" state with dangerous power. He advocated <a href="/wiki/Free-market" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market">free-market</a> capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and let spontaneous order develop.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>: Emphasized the "cunning" of history, arguing that it followed a rational trajectory, even while embodying seemingly irrational forces; influenced Marx, <a href="/wiki/Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>: Generally considered to have first articulated how the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> that justifies the actions of rulers (even where contrary to the individual desires of governed citizens), can be reconciled with a conception of sovereignty.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement. Hume was a realist in recognizing the role of force to forge the existence of states and that <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a> was merely hypothetical. He also introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a>, later picked up on and developed by <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>: Politician and political theorist during the <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a>. Expanded on the philosophy of Thomas Paine by instrumenting <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> in the United States. Most famous for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>: Argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, but as a moral duty. First modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>: One of the classic anarchist thinkers and the most influential theorist of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">anarcho-communism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>: Like Hobbes, described a social contract theory based on citizens' fundamental rights in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>. He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property. His arguments may have been deeply influential to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>: First systematic analyses of: (1) how consent of a populace is negotiated between and among rulers rather than simply a naturalistic (or theological) given of the structure of society; (2) precursor to the concept of ideology in articulating the epistemological structure of commands and law.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>: American politician and protege of Jefferson considered to be "Father of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>" and "Father of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>" of the United States. As a political theorist, he believed in <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> and proposed a comprehensive set of <a href="/wiki/Checks_and_balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and balances">checks and balances</a> that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the <a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a>: Called the father of the <a href="/wiki/New_left" class="mw-redirect" title="New left">new left</a>. One of the principal thinkers within the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>, and generally important in efforts to fuse the thought of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. Introduced the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Repressive_desublimation" title="Repressive desublimation">repressive desublimation</a>", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire. His work <a href="/wiki/Eros_and_Civilization" title="Eros and Civilization">Eros and Civilization</a> and notion of a non-repressive society was influential on the 1960s and its counter-cultural social movements.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>: In large part, added the historical dimension to an understanding of society, culture and economics. Created the concept of <i>ideology</i> in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions. Analyzed the fundamental nature of class as a mechanism of governance and social interaction. Profoundly influenced world politics with his theory of communism.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>: A <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a>, and the person who named the system; he goes further than Bentham by laying the foundation for liberal democratic thought in general and modern, as opposed to classical, liberalism in particular. Articulated the place of individual liberty in an otherwise utilitarian framework.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu">Baron de Montesquieu</a>: Analyzed protection of the people by a "balance of powers" in the divisions of a state.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>: Revitalized the study of normative political philosophy in Anglo-American universities with his 1971 book <a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a>, which uses a version of <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Social contract theory">social contract theory</a> to answer fundamental questions about <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> and to criticise <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>: Eponymous founder of the Mohist school, advocated a form of <a href="/wiki/Mohist_consequentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohist consequentialism">consequentialism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>: Philosopher who became a powerful influence on a broad spectrum of 20th-century political currents in <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>. His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>: Criticized Rawls, and argued for <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a>, by appeal to a hypothetical history of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> writer who defended <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Common_Sense" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense">Common Sense</a></i> and The <i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>: Wrote a lengthy dialog <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a></i> in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories. One category of people are the rulers: they should be philosophers, according to Plato, this idea is based on his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a>: Commonly considered the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">mutualism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a>: The central theorist of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">anarcho-capitalism</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a> economist.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>: Analyzed the social contract as an expression of the <a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>, and controversially argued in favor of absolute <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> where the people at large would act as <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a>: Founder of <a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a> and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth century America. Advocated a complete, laissez-faire capitalism. Rand held that the proper role of government was exclusively the protection of individual rights without economic interference. The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion. Any governmental action not directed at the defense of individual rights would constitute the initiation of force (or threat of force), and therefore a violation not only of rights but also of the legitimate function of government.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a>: German political theorist, tied to the Nazis, who developed the concepts of the Friend/Enemy Distinction and the State of exception. Though his most influential books were written in the 1920s, he continued to write prolifically until his death (in academic quasi-exile) in 1985. He heavily influenced 20th century political philosophy both within the Frankfurt School and among others, not all of whom are philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Giorgio Agamben</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>: Often said to have founded modern <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior ("the invisible hand") of artisans and traders. While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of industrial labor (e.g., repetitive activity) on workers. His work on moral sentiments sought to explain social bonds which enhance economic activity.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>: Set forth the first analysis of <i><a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational egoism</a></i>, in which the rational interest of self is conformance with pure reason. To Spinoza's thinking, in a society in which each individual is guided by reason, political authority would be superfluous.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a>: Important thinker within <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a> and the main representative of the anarchist current known as <a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">individualist anarchism</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a>: Famously rejected modernity, mostly on the grounds of what he perceived to be modern political philosophy's excessive self-sufficiency of reason and flawed philosophical grounds for moral and political normativity. He argued instead we should return to pre-modern thinkers for answers to contemporary issues. His philosophy was influential on the formation of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Conservativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Conservativism">Neo-Conservativism</a>, and a number of his students later were members of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">Bush administration</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>: Influential American thinker on such diverse later political positions and topics such as <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> who influenced later important political activists such as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther King">Martin Luther King</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire)</a>: French Enlightenment writer, poet, and philosopher famous for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a>: A British moral philosopher whose posthumously published work on political philosophy <i>In the Beginning was the Deed</i> has been seen—along with the works of <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Geuss" title="Raymond Geuss">Raymond Geuss</a>—as a key foundational work on political realism.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-3" style="-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_schools_of_thought" title="Anarchist schools of thought">Anarchist schools of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Consensus decision making">Consensus decision making</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialist_justifications_of_the_state" title="Consequentialist justifications of the state">Consequentialist justifications of the state</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_theory" title="Engaged theory">Engaged theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Majoritarianism" title="Majoritarianism">Majoritarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panarchism" title="Panarchism">Panarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Political media">Political media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)">Political Theory (journal)</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">Poststructuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rechtsstaat" title="Rechtsstaat">Rechtsstaat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rule_According_to_Higher_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule According to Higher Law">Rule According to Higher Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics_of_culture" title="Semiotics of culture">Semiotics of culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Theodemocracy</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Deutsch, Eliot; Ronald Bontekoei (1999). <i>A companion to world philosophies</i>. Wiley Blackwell. p.&#160;183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Eliot&amp;rft.aulast=Deutsch&amp;rft.au=Ronald+Bontekoei&amp;rft.btitle=A+companion+to+world+philosophies&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=183&amp;rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hsü, Leonard Shihlien (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=FWFtQIyun-8C"><i>The political philosophy of Confucianism</i></a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;xvii–xx. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-36154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-36154-5">978-0-415-36154-5</a>. <q>The importance of a scientific study of Confucian political philosophy could hardly be overstated.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Leonard+Shihlien&amp;rft.aulast=Hs%C3%BC&amp;rft.btitle=The+political+philosophy+of+Confucianism&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DFWFtQIyun-8C&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-36154-5&amp;rft.pages=xvii-xx&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sahakian_1993_59-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sahakian, Mabel Lewis (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=Vi7cQMw8SwYC&amp;pg=PA59"><i>Ideas of the great philosophers</i></a>. Barnes &amp; Noble Publishing. p.&#160;59. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-271-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-271-2">978-1-56619-271-2</a>. <q>... Western philosophical tradition can be traced back as early as Plato (427–347 B.C.).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Mabel+Lewis&amp;rft.aulast=Sahakian&amp;rft.btitle=Ideas+of+the+great+philosophers&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DVi7cQMw8SwYC%26pg%3DPA59&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56619-271-2&amp;rft.pages=59&amp;rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kraut, Richard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=9BDmX3FBbS4C&amp;pg=PA3"><i>Aristotle: political philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;3. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878200-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878200-1">978-0-19-878200-1</a>. <q>To understand and assess Aristotle's contributions to political thought ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Kraut&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+political+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D9BDmX3FBbS4C%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-878200-1&amp;rft.pages=3&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Radford, Robert T. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=1cKLGcvuYxQC&amp;pg=PA1"><i>Cicero: a study in the origins of republican philosophy</i></a>. Rodopi. p.&#160;1. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1467-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1467-1">978-90-420-1467-1</a>. <q>His most lasting political contribution is in his work on political philosophy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&amp;rft.aulast=Radford&amp;rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+a+study+in+the+origins+of+republican+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D1cKLGcvuYxQC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-420-1467-1&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=Rodopi&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Boesche, Roger (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K85NA7Rg67wC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;dq=isbn%3A0739106074&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra</i></a>. Lexington Books. p.&#160;7. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0401-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0401-2">0-7391-0401-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft.aulast=Boesche&amp;rft.btitle=The+First+Great+Political+Realist%3A+Kautilya+and+His+Arthashastra&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK85NA7Rg67wC%26lpg%3DPP1%26dq%3Disbn%253A0739106074%26pg%3DPP1%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=0-7391-0401-2&amp;rft.pages=7&amp;rft.pub=Lexington+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rangarajan, L N (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC&amp;lpg=PA1&amp;pg=PT22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>The ARTHASHASTRA</i></a>. Penguin UK,. p.&#160;95. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788184750119" title="Special:BookSources/9788184750119">9788184750119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=L+N&amp;rft.aulast=Rangarajan&amp;rft.btitle=The+ARTHASHASTRA&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3jbzZkoR36QC%26lpg%3DPA1%26pg%3DPT22%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=9788184750119&amp;rft.pages=95&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+UK%2C&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Brown, D. Mackenzie (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JZzXv2JOZUMC&amp;lpg=PA65&amp;dq=sukraniti&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>The White Umbrella: Indian Political Thought from Manu to Gandhi</i></a>. Greenwood Press. p.&#160;64. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313232107" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313232107">978-0313232107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+Mackenzie&amp;rft.aulast=Brown&amp;rft.btitle=The+White+Umbrella%3A+Indian+Political+Thought+from+Manu+to+Gandhi&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJZzXv2JOZUMC%26lpg%3DPA65%26dq%3Dsukraniti%26pg%3DPP1%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=978-0313232107&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sankhdher, Madan Mohan; Kaur, Gurdeep (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=veYezcrVAlcC&amp;lpg=PA103&amp;dq=sukra%20neeti&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q=sukra&amp;f=false"><i>Politics in India&#160;: Ancient India, Politics of Change, Modern India</i></a>. Deep and Deep Publications,. p.&#160;95. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788176296557" title="Special:BookSources/9788176296557">9788176296557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Madan+Mohan&amp;rft.au=Kaur%2C+Gurdeep&amp;rft.aulast=Sankhdher&amp;rft.btitle=Politics+in+India+%3A+Ancient+India%2C+Politics+of+Change%2C+Modern+India&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DveYezcrVAlcC%26lpg%3DPA103%26dq%3Dsukra%2520neeti%26pg%3DPR4%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dsukra%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=9788176296557&amp;rft.pages=95&amp;rft.pub=Deep+and+Deep+Publications%2C&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Manu ((Lawgiver)); Kullūkabhaṭṭa (1796). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=4caNTgBa6oEC"><i>Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Menu, According to the Gloss of Cullúca</i></a>. Calcutta, Printed by order of the government, London reprinted, for J. Sewell ...; and J. Debrett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Kull%C5%ABkabha%E1%B9%E1%B9a&amp;rft.au=Manu+%28%28Lawgiver%29%29&amp;rft.btitle=Institutes+of+Hindu+Law%3A+Or%2C+The+Ordinances+of+Menu%2C+According+to+the+Gloss+of+Cull%C3%BAca&amp;rft.date=1796&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D4caNTgBa6oEC&amp;rft.pub=Calcutta%2C+Printed+by+order+of+the+government%2C+London+reprinted%2C+for+J.+Sewell+...%3B+and+J.+Debrett&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Schall, James V. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=yZK79kiFFtsC&amp;pg=PA40"><i>At the Limits of Political Philosophy</i></a>. CUA Press. p.&#160;40. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0922-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0922-7">978-0-8132-0922-7</a>. <q>In political philosophy, St. Augustine was a follower of Plato ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=James+V.&amp;rft.aulast=Schall&amp;rft.btitle=At+the+Limits+of+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DyZK79kiFFtsC%26pg%3DPA40&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8132-0922-7&amp;rft.pages=40&amp;rft.pub=CUA+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Reza_Aslan" title="Reza Aslan">Aslan, Reza</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=AkyupJn81RMC&amp;pg=PA153"><i>No god but God</i></a>. Random House Inc. p.&#160;153. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-445-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-445-6">978-1-58836-445-6</a>. <q>By the ninth and tenth centuries...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Reza&amp;rft.aulast=Aslan&amp;rft.btitle=No+god+but+God&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DAkyupJn81RMC%26pg%3DPA153&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58836-445-6&amp;rft.pages=153&amp;rft.pub=Random+House+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Gellner, Ernest</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=WwduQjFiB7kC&amp;pg=PA239"><i>Plough, Sword, and Book</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p.&#160;239. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28702-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28702-7">978-0-226-28702-7</a>. <q>(Ibn Khaldun's definition of government probably remains the best: ...)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Ernest&amp;rft.aulast=Gellner&amp;rft.btitle=Plough%2C+Sword%2C+and+Book&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DWwduQjFiB7kC%26pg%3DPA239&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-226-28702-7&amp;rft.pages=239&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Koetsier, L. S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=7uLE3DynB0YC&amp;pg=PA19"><i>Natural Law and Calvinist Political Theory</i></a>. Trafford Publishing. p.&#160;19. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-1440-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-1440-7">978-1-4122-1440-7</a>. <q>...the Medieval Scholastics revived the concept of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=L.+S.&amp;rft.aulast=Koetsier&amp;rft.btitle=Natural+Law+and+Calvinist+Political+Theory&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D7uLE3DynB0YC%26pg%3DPA19&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4122-1440-7&amp;rft.pages=19&amp;rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Copleston, Frederick (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=y_382o-fpOsC&amp;pg=PA346"><i>A history of philosophy</i></a> <b>3</b>. Continuum International Publishing Group. p.&#160;346. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86012-296-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86012-296-8">978-0-86012-296-8</a>. <q>There was, however, at least one department of thought ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick&amp;rft.aulast=Copleston&amp;rft.btitle=A+history+of+philosophy&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dy_382o-fpOsC%26pg%3DPA346&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-86012-296-8&amp;rft.pages=346&amp;rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Valente, Claire (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=B8yRrtm0LicC&amp;pg=PA14"><i>The theory and practice of revolt in medieval England</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. p.&#160;14. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0901-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0901-8">978-0-7546-0901-8</a>. <q>The two starting points of most medieval discussions ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Claire&amp;rft.aulast=Valente&amp;rft.btitle=The+theory+and+practice+of+revolt+in+medieval+England&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DB8yRrtm0LicC%26pg%3DPA14&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0901-8&amp;rft.pages=14&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing+Ltd.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Johnston, Ian (February 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mala.bc.ca/~Johnstoi/introser/machiavelli.htm">"Lecture on Machiavelli's The Prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Malaspina_University_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaspina University College">Malaspina University College</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft.aulast=Johnston&amp;rft.btitle=Lecture+on+Machiavelli%27s+The+Prince&amp;rft.date=2002-02&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mala.bc.ca%2F~Johnstoi%2Fintroser%2Fmachiavelli.htm&amp;rft.pub=Malaspina+University+College&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Copleston, Frederick (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=y_382o-fpOsC&amp;pg=PA310"><i>A history of philosophy</i></a> <b>3</b>. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp.&#160;310–312. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86012-296-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86012-296-8">978-0-86012-296-8</a>. <q>...we witness the growth of political absolutism ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick&amp;rft.aulast=Copleston&amp;rft.btitle=A+history+of+philosophy&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dy_382o-fpOsC%26pg%3DPA310&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-86012-296-8&amp;rft.pages=310-312&amp;rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Barens, Ingo; Caspari, Volker; Schefold, Bertram (2004). Barens, Ingo, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=x6C5AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA206"><i>Political events and economic ideas</i></a>. Volker Caspari ed., Bertram Schefold ed. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp.&#160;206–207. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-152-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-152-6">978-1-84542-152-6</a>. <q>Economic theory as political philosophy: the example of the French Enlightenment</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Caspari%2C+Volker&amp;rft.aufirst=Ingo&amp;rft.aulast=Barens&amp;rft.au=Schefold%2C+Bertram&amp;rft.btitle=Political+events+and+economic+ideas&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dx6C5AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA206&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84542-152-6&amp;rft.pages=206-207&amp;rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Byrne, James M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=FcEy8SF63TgC&amp;pg=PA1"><i>Religion and the Enlightenment</i></a>. Westminster John Knox Press. pp.&#160;1–2. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25760-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25760-6">978-0-664-25760-6</a>. <q>... there emerged groups of <a href="/wiki/Freethought#England_and_France" title="Freethought">freethinkers</a> intent on grounding knowledge on the exercise of critical reason, as opposed to ... established religion ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=James+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Byrne&amp;rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Enlightenment&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DFcEy8SF63TgC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-664-25760-6&amp;rft.pages=1-2&amp;rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Johansen, Bruce Elliott (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=H593mgxQNu4C&amp;pg=PA69"><i>Native American political systems and the evolution of democracy</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.&#160;69. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30010-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30010-3">978-0-313-30010-3</a>. <q>... the three-tier system of federalism ... is an inheritance of Iroquois inspiration</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Bruce+Elliott&amp;rft.aulast=Johansen&amp;rft.btitle=Native+American+political+systems+and+the+evolution+of+democracy&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DH593mgxQNu4C%26pg%3DPA69&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-313-30010-3&amp;rft.pages=69&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Marx, Karl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/p3.htm">"Capital Volume One, Afterword to the Second German Edition"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Karl&amp;rft.aulast=Marx&amp;rft.btitle=Capital+Volume+One%2C+Afterword+to+the+Second+German+Edition&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1867-c1%2Fp3.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kain, Philip J. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=kvG8DVBeT9QC&amp;pg=PA1"><i>Marx and modern political theory</i></a>. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. pp.&#160;1–4. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-7866-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-7866-2">978-0-8476-7866-2</a>. <q>Some of his texts, especially the <i><a href="/wiki/Communist_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Manifesto">Communist Manifesto</a></i> made him seem like a sort of communist Descartes ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Kain&amp;rft.btitle=Marx+and+modern+political+theory&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DkvG8DVBeT9QC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8476-7866-2&amp;rft.pages=1-4&amp;rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Aspalter, Christian (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=vouKut-RAYoC&amp;pg=PA70"><i>Importance of Christian and Social Democratic movements in welfare politics</i></a>. Nova Publishers. p.&#160;70. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-975-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-975-4">978-1-56072-975-4</a>. <q>The pressing need for universal suffrage ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Christian&amp;rft.aulast=Aspalter&amp;rft.btitle=Importance+of+Christian+and+Social+Democratic+movements+in+welfare+politics&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DvouKut-RAYoC%26pg%3DPA70&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56072-975-4&amp;rft.pages=70&amp;rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/etexts/austrian.asp">What is Austrian Economics?</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Von_Mises_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwig Von Mises Institute">Ludwig Von Mises Institute</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Richard M. Ebeling (2003). <i>Austrian economics and the political economy of freedom</i>. Edward Elgar Pub. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-940-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-940-6">978-1-84064-940-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Richard+M.+Ebeling&amp;rft.btitle=Austrian+economics+and+the+political+economy+of+freedom&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84064-940-6&amp;rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Pub&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Lewis Schaefer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nysun.com/sports/reconsiderations-robert-nozick-and-coast-utopia">Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Sun" title="The New York Sun">The New York Sun</a>, April 30, 2008.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson, <i>Democracy and Disagreement</i> (Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Gutmann and Thompson, <i>Why Deliberative Democracy?</i> (Princeton University Press, 2002).</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Academic journals dedicated to political philosophy include: <i>Political Theory</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_Public_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy and Public Affairs">Philosophy and Public Affairs</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Political_Theory" title="Contemporary Political Theory">Contemporary Political Theory</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Theory_%26_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory &amp; Event">Theory &amp; Event</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Constellations_(journal)" title="Constellations (journal)">Constellations</a></i>, and <i>Journal of Political Philosophy</i></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Alison_Assiter" title="Alison Assiter">Assiter, Alison</a> (2009). <i>Kierkegaard, metaphysics and political theory unfinished selves</i>. London New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826498311" title="Special:BookSources/9780826498311">9780826498311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Alison&amp;rft.aulast=Assiter&amp;rft.btitle=Kierkegaard%2C+metaphysics+and+political+theory+unfinished+selves&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780826498311&amp;rft.place=London+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">James F. Bohman; William Rehg (1997). <i>Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52241-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52241-0">978-0-262-52241-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.au=James+F.+Bohman&amp;rft.au=William+Rehg&amp;rft.btitle=Deliberative+Democracy%3A+Essays+on+Reason+and+Politics&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-52241-0&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Gad Barzilai (2003). <i>Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities</i>. The University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-47211315-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-47211315-1">0-47211315-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Gad+Barzilai&amp;rft.btitle=Communities+and+Law%3A+Politics+and+Cultures+of+Legal+Identities&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-47211315-1&amp;rft.pub=The+University+of+Michigan+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Amy Gutmann; Dennis F. (Dennis Frank) Thompson (1996). <i>Democracy and Disagreement</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-19766-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-19766-4">978-0-674-19766-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Amy+Gutmann&amp;rft.btitle=Democracy+and+Disagreement&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-674-19766-4&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Cite uses deprecated parameter <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|coauthors=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#deprecated_params" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Gutmann, Amy; Thompson, Dennis (2004). <i>Why Deliberative Democracy?</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12019-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12019-5">978-0-691-12019-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Amy&amp;rft.aulast=Gutmann&amp;rft.au=Thompson%2C+Dennis&amp;rft.btitle=Why+Deliberative+Democracy%3F&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-12019-5&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">London Philosophy Study Guide</a> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Political.htm">Political Philosophy</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Parkinson, John; <a href="/wiki/Jane_Mansbridge" title="Jane Mansbridge">Mansbridge, Jane</a> (2012). <i>Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02539-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02539-4">978-1-107-02539-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Parkinson&amp;rft.au=Mansbridge%2C+Jane&amp;rft.btitle=Deliberative+Systems%3A+Deliberative+Democracy+at+the+Large+Scale&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-107-02539-4&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_F._Tsvirkun&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander F. Tsvirkun (page does not exist)">Alexander F. Tsvirkun</a> 2008. <i>History of political and legal Teachings of Ukraine</i>. Kharkiv.</li>
<li>Bielskis, Andrius 2005. <i>Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political</i>. Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.</li>
<li>Eric Nelson, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-Hebrew-republic.php">The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought</a></i> (Harvard University Press, 2010)</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Zippelius, Reinhold (2003). <i>Geschichte der Staatsideen</i>. C.H.Beck. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-49494-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-49494-9">978-3-406-49494-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Reinhold&amp;rft.aulast=Zippelius&amp;rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+Staatsideen&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-406-49494-9&amp;rft.pub=C.H.Beck&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks infobox" style="float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY">Library resources</a> about<br />
<b>Political philosophy</b>
<hr /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;">
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Political+philosophy">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Political+philosophy&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/social-and-political-philosophy">Political philosophy</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2244">Political philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/polphil">"Political philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Political+philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fpolphil&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Video lectures (require <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a>): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academicearth.org/courses/introduction-to-political-philosophy">Introduction to Political Philosophy</a> delivered by <a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Steven B Smith</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> and provided by <a href="/wiki/Academic_Earth" title="Academic Earth">Academic Earth</a>.</li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Politics</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
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</td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social</a> and <strong class="selflink">political philosophy</strong></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_and_political_philosophers" title="List of social and political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Alinsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Gabriel_Ambroise_de_Bonald" title="Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald">Bonald</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bosanquet_(philosopher)" title="Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)">Bosanquet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milovan_%C4%90ilas" class="mw-redirect" title="Milovan ?ilas">?ilas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justus_M%C3%B6ser" title="Justus Möser">Möser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Plamenatz" title="John Plamenatz">Plamenatz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prabhat_Ranjan_Sarkar" title="Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar">Sarkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Spirito" title="Ugo Spirito">Spirito</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vivekananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_theories" title="Category:Social theories">Social theories</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminist political theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Four occupations</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">more...</a></b></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_love" title="Philosophy of love">Philosophy of love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Philosophy of sex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Allan_(legal_philosopher)" title="Trevor Allan (legal philosopher)">Allan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Amar" title="Akhil Amar">Amar</a></li>
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