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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Physics</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">This article is about the field of science. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Physics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Physics (disambiguation)">Physics (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">Physical science</a>.</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CollageFisica.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/CollageFisica.jpg/300px-CollageFisica.jpg" width="300" height="217" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/CollageFisica.jpg/450px-CollageFisica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/CollageFisica.jpg/600px-CollageFisica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="600" /></a>
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Various examples of physical phenomena.</div>
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<p><b>Physics</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient&#160;Greek</a>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυσική (?πιστήμη)</span>&#160;<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i>phusikḗ (epistḗmē)</i></span>&#160;"knowledge of nature", from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φ?σις</span> <i>phúsis</i> "nature"<sup id="cite_ref-etymonline-physics_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline-physics-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-etymonline-physic_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline-physic-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LSJ_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSJ-3">[3]</a></sup>) is the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> that involves the study of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a><sup id="cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963-atomic_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963-atomic-4">[4]</a></sup> and its <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> through <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">space and time</a>, along with related concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-maxwell1878-physicalscience_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxwell1878-physicalscience-5">[5]</a></sup> One of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> behaves.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-7">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p2-8">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holzner2003-physics_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holzner2003-physics-9">[8]</a></sup></p>
<p>Physics is one of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a>, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-krupp2003_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krupp2003-10">[9]</a></sup> Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and certain branches of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, but during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a> in the 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> emerged as unique <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> programs in their own right.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[b]</a></sup> Physics intersects with many <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> areas of research, such as <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a>, and the boundaries of physics are not <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">rigidly defined</a>. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences<sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-7">[6]</a></sup> while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.</p>
<p>Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a> that arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_appliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic appliance">domestic appliances</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-7">[6]</a></sup> advances in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, and advances in <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> inspired the development of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>.</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ancient_astronomy"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient astronomy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Natural_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Natural philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Physics in the medieval Islamic world</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Classical_physics"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Classical physics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Modern_physics"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Modern physics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Core_theories"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Core theories</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Classical_physics_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Classical physics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Modern_physics_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Modern physics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Difference_between_classical_and_modern_physics"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Difference between classical and modern physics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Relation_to_other_fields"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Relation to other fields</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Prerequisites"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Prerequisites</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Application_and_influence"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Application and influence</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Research"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Research</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Scientific_method"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific method</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Theory_and_experiment"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Theory and experiment</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Scope_and_aims"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Scope and aims</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Research_fields"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Research fields</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Particle_physics"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Particle physics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical_physics"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Condensed_matter_physics"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Condensed matter physics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Astrophysics"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Astrophysics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Current_research"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Current research</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_astronomy">Ancient astronomy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/220px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG" width="220" height="136" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/330px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/440px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="379" /></a>
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Ancient <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a> is evident in monuments like the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_ceiling_of_Senemut_Tomb" title="Astronomical ceiling of Senemut Tomb">ceiling of Senemut's tomb</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a>.</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> is the oldest of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>. The earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000&#160;BCE, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a>, all had a predictive knowledge and a basic understanding of the motions of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>. The stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-krupp2003_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krupp2003-10">[9]</a></sup></p>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Asger_Aaboe" title="Asger Aaboe">Asger Aaboe</a>, the origins of <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> astronomy can be found in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and all Western efforts in the <a href="/wiki/Exact_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Exact science">exact sciences</a> are descended from late <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aaboe1991_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaboe1991-12">[10]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomers</a> left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies,<sup id="cite_ref-clagett1995_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clagett1995-13">[11]</a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek poetry">Greek poet</a> <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> wrote of various celestial objects in his <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i>; later <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomers</a> provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern hemisphere">northern hemisphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-thurston1994_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thurston1994-14">[12]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_philosophy">Natural philosophy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a> has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a>, (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when <a href="/wiki/Presocratics" class="mw-redirect" title="Presocratics">Pre-Socratic philosophers</a> like <a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a> rejected <a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">non-naturalistic</a> explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.<sup id="cite_ref-singer2008p35_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singer2008p35-15">[13]</a></sup> They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment;<sup id="cite_ref-lloyd1970pp108-109_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lloyd1970pp108-109-16">[14]</a></sup> for example, <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and his pupil <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-about-atomism_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-atomism-17">[15]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world">Physics in the medieval Islamic world</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics in the medieval Islamic world</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinhole-camera.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/220px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png" width="220" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/330px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/440px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="273" /></a>
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The basic way a pinhole camera works</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">Islamic scholarship</a> had inherited <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a> from the Greeks and during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and <i>a priori</i> reasoning, developing early forms of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.</p>
<p>The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl" title="Ibn Sahl">Ibn Sahl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Al-Haitham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Al-Haitham">Ibn Al-Haitham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-F%C4%81ris%C4%AB" title="Kam?l al-Dīn al-F?risī">Al-Farisi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>. The most notable work, was <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">The Book of Optics</a></i> (also known as Kit?b al-Man?ẓir) written by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Al-Haitham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Al-Haitham">Ibn Al-Haitham</a>, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a></sup> In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the <a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole camera</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a></sup> and delved further into the way the eye itself works. Using dissections and the knowledge of previous scholars, he was able to begin to explain how light enters the eye, is focused, and is projected to the back of the eye: and built then the world's first <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> hundreds of years before the modern development of photography.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a></sup></p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn-al-haytham.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ibn-al-haytham.jpg/220px-Ibn-al-haytham.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ibn-al-haytham.jpg/330px-Ibn-al-haytham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ibn-al-haytham.jpg/440px-Ibn-al-haytham.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a>
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Ibn Al Haytham, the pioneer of optics</div>
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<p>The seven-volume <i>Book of Optics</i> (<i>Kitab al-Manathir</i>) hugely influenced thinking across disciplines from the theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more than 600 years. Many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haytham’s Optics ranks alongside that of Newton’s work of the same title, published 700 years later.</p>
<p>The translation of <i>The Book of Optics</i> had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the same devices as what <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" title="Alhazen">Ibn Al Haytham</a> did, and understand the way light works. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras were developed.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Classical_physics">Classical physics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a> (1643–1727), whose <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a> were major milestones in classical physics</div>
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<p>Physics became a separate science when <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europeans</a> used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of physics">laws of physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-benchaim2004_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benchaim2004-21">[19]</a></sup></p>
<p>Major developments in this period include the replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar system">solar system</a> with the heliocentric <a href="/wiki/Copernican_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernican model">Copernican model</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">laws governing the motion of planetary bodies</a> determined by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> between 1609 and 1619, pioneering work on <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s discovery and unification of the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a> that would come to bear his name.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a></sup> Newton also developed <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[c]</a></sup> the mathematical study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-allen1997_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen1997-24">[21]</a></sup></p>
<p>The discovery of new laws in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetics">electromagnetics</a> resulted from greater research efforts during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> as energy needs increased.<sup id="cite_ref-schoolscience-industrialrevolution_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schoolscience-industrialrevolution-25">[22]</a></sup> The laws comprising classical physics remain very widely used for objects on everyday scales travelling at non-relativistic speeds, since they provide a very close approximation in such situations, and theories such as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> simplify to their classical equivalents at such scales. However, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_physics">Modern physics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">History of special relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History of quantum mechanics</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1879–1955), whose work on the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> led to a revolution in 20th century physics</div>
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<a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> (1858–1947), the originator of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a> began in the early 20th century with the work of <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> predicted a varying <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a> of electromagnetism; this discrepancy was corrected by Einstein's theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light.<sup id="cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-relativity_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-relativity-26">[23]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Black_body_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Black body radiation">Black body radiation</a> provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency; this, along with the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> and a complete theory predicting discrete <a href="/wiki/Energy_levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy levels">energy levels</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">electron orbitals</a>, led to the theory of quantum mechanics taking over from classical physics at very small scales.<sup id="cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum-27">[24]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> would come to be pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum-27">[24]</a></sup> From this early work, and work in related fields, the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model_of_particle_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Model of particle physics">Standard Model of particle physics</a> was derived.<sup id="cite_ref-donut2001_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donut2001-28">[25]</a></sup> Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> in 2012,<sup id="cite_ref-cho2012_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cho2012-29">[26]</a></sup> all <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental particles">fundamental particles</a> predicted by the standard model, and no others, appear to exist; however, <a href="/wiki/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Physics beyond the Standard Model">physics beyond the Standard Model</a>, with theories such as <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a>, is an active area of research.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a></sup> Areas of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> in general are important to this field, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Study_of_probabilities&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Study of probabilities (page does not exist)">study of probabilities</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy">Philosophy</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></div>
<p>In many ways, physics stems from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a>' first attempt to characterise matter, to <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic astronomy">Ptolemaic astronomy</a> of a crystalline <a href="/wiki/Firmament" title="Firmament">firmament</a>, and Aristotle's book <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> (an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view), various Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Physics was known as <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> until the late 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></sup></p>
<p>By the 19th century, physics was realised as a discipline distinct from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> and its "scientific method" to advance our knowledge of the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-rosenberg2006ch1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rosenberg2006ch1-32">[29]</a></sup> The scientific method employs <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori reasoning</a></i> as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">a posteriori</a></i> reasoning and the use of <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a> to measure the validity of a given theory.<sup id="cite_ref-godfreysmith2003ch14_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-godfreysmith2003ch14-33">[30]</a></sup></p>
<p>The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>, and metaphysical outlooks such as <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-godfreysmith2003ch15_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-godfreysmith2003ch15-34">[31]</a></sup></p>
<p>Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance <a href="/wiki/Laplace" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace">Laplace</a>, who championed <a href="/wiki/Causal_determinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal determinism">causal determinism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-laplace1951_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-laplace1951-35">[32]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, who wrote on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-schroedinger1983_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroedinger1983-36">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schroedinger1995_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroedinger1995-37">[34]</a></sup> The mathematical physicist <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> has been called a <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonist</a> by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-hawkingpenrose1996p4_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hawkingpenrose1996p4-38">[35]</a></sup> a view Penrose discusses in his book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality" title="The Road to Reality">The Road to Reality</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-penrose2004_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penrose2004-39">[36]</a></sup> Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes issue with Penrose's views.<sup id="cite_ref-penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997-40">[37]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Core_theories">Core theories</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">Branches of physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physics" title="Outline of physics">Outline of physics</a></div>
<p>Though physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For instance, the theory of <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical</a> mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> and moving at much less than the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. These theories continue to be areas of active research today. <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a>, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1642–1727).</p>
<p>These central theories are important tools for research into more specialised topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialisation, is expected to be literate in them. These include <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Classical_physics_2">Classical physics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></div>
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Classical physics implemented in an <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic engineering">acoustic engineering</a> model of sound reflecting from an acoustic diffuser</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a> includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognised and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—<a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> is concerned with bodies acted on by <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">forces</a> and bodies in <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> and may be divided into <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a> (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> (study of motion without regard to its causes), and <a href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics" title="Analytical dynamics">dynamics</a> (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">fluid mechanics</a> (known together as <a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">continuum mechanics</a>), the latter include such branches as <a href="/wiki/Fluid_statics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid statics">hydrostatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">hydrodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pneumatics" title="Pneumatics">pneumatics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a> is the study of how <a href="/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">sound</a> is produced, controlled, transmitted and received.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica-acoustics_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-acoustics-41">[38]</a></sup> Important modern branches of acoustics include <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasonics">ultrasonics</a>, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; <a href="/wiki/Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">bioacoustics</a>, the physics of animal calls and hearing,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Electroacoustics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroacoustics">electroacoustics</a>, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, the study of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, is concerned not only with <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a> but also with <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a>, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> gives rise to a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a> deals with <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a> at rest, <a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">electrodynamics</a> with moving charges, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetostatics" title="Magnetostatics">magnetostatics</a> with magnetic poles at rest.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_physics_2">Modern physics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></div>
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }</annotation>
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<div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:90%;padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Spacetime_Topology#Manifold_Dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacetime Topology">Manifold Dynamics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Klein-Gordon_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Klein-Gordon equation">Klein-Gordon equations</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/220px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/330px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/440px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> of 1927, with prominent physicists such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>.</div>
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<p>Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> studies matter on the smallest scale at which <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> can be identified. The <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">physics of elementary particles</a> is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>. On this scale, ordinary, commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.</p>
<p>The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a> is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a> that is in motion with respect to an observer; the <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special theory of relativity</a> is concerned with relative uniform motion in a straight line and the <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general theory of relativity</a> with accelerated motion and its connection with <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a>. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in all areas of modern physics.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Difference_between_classical_and_modern_physics">Difference between classical and modern physics</span></h3>
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The basic domains of physics</div>
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<p>While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> contributed the framework of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, which replaced notions of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_time_and_space" title="Absolute time and space">absolute time and space</a> with <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, and others introduced <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a> unified <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>. <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a> allowed for a dynamical, curved <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> are being developed.</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Relation_to_other_fields">Relation to other fields</span></h2>
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This <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabola</a>-shaped <a href="/wiki/Lava_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava flow">lava flow</a> illustrates the application of mathematics in physics—in this case, <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of falling bodies">law of falling bodies</a>.</div>
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Mathematics and ontology are used in physics. Physics is used in chemistry and cosmology.</div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Prerequisites">Prerequisites</span></h3>
<p>Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe of the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-dijksterhuis1986_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dijksterhuis1986-44">[41]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-mastin2010-plato_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mastin2010-plato-45">[42]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo-46">[43]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>.</p>
<p>Physics uses mathematics<sup id="cite_ref-applicationsofmathematics_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-applicationsofmathematics-47">[44]</a></sup> to organise and formulate experimental results. From those results, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic solution">precise</a> or <a href="/wiki/Simulation#Computer_simulation" title="Simulation">estimated</a> solutions, quantitative results from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like <a href="/wiki/Scientific_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific computing">computation</a> have made <a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">computational physics</a> an active area of research.</p>
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The distinction between mathematics and physics is clear-cut, but not always obvious, especially in mathematical physics.</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a> is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data.</p>
<p>The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical.<sup id="cite_ref-jmp-def_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jmp-def-48">[45]</a></sup> The problems in this field start with a "<a href="/wiki/Boundary_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary condition">mathematical model of a physical situation</a>" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solution has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>Physics is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">fundamental science</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Practical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical science">practical science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aaas1917p645_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaas1917p645-49">[46]</a></sup> Physics is also called "the fundamental science" because the subject of study of all branches of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> like chemistry, astronomy, geology and biology are constrained by laws of physics,<sup id="cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3-50">[47]</a></sup> similar to how chemistry is often called <a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">the central science</a> because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reactions</a> of matter (chemistry's focus on the atomic scale <a href="/wiki/Difference_between_chemistry_and_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference between chemistry and physics">distinguishes it from physics</a>). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy, mass and charge.</p>
<p>Physics is applied in industries like engineering and medicine.</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Application_and_influence">Application and influence</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied physics</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">simple machine</a> for lifting</div>
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The application of physical laws in lifting liquids</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied physics</a> is a general term for physics research which is intended for a particular <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">use</a>. An applied physics <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a> usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem.</p>
<p>The approach is similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_physics" title="Accelerator physics">accelerator physics</a> might seek to build better <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">particle detectors</a> for research in theoretical physics.</p>
<p>Physics is used heavily in <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a>, a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, is used in the building of <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridges</a> and other static structures. The understanding and use of <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustics</a> results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic <a href="/wiki/Flight_simulator" title="Flight simulator">flight simulators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">movies</a>, and is often critical in <a href="/wiki/Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">forensic</a> investigations.</p>
<p>With the <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarianism (science)">standard consensus</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws</a> of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">uncertainty</a>. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth#Origin_of_the_Earth.27s_core_and_first_atmosphere" title="History of Earth">study of the origin of the earth</a>, one can reasonably model earth's <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, and rate of <a href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotation</a>, as a function of time allowing one to extrapolate forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology.</p>
<p>But there is also considerable <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a> in the physicist's methods, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of <a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">econophysics</a> and sociophysics).</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Research">Research</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_method">Scientific method</span></h3>
<p>Physicists use <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">the scientific method</a> to test the validity of a <a href="/wiki/Physical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical theory">physical theory</a>. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a> and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of the theory.</p>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">scientific law</a> is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation which expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton's law of universal gravitation.<sup id="cite_ref-honderich1995pp474-476_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-honderich1995pp474-476-51">[48]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theory_and_experiment">Theory and experiment</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental physics</a></div>
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The <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronaut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> are both in <a href="/wiki/Free-fall" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-fall">free-fall</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a></div>
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<p>Theorists seek to develop <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while <a href="/wiki/Experimentalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimentalist">experimentalists</a> devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a> are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a>, which inspire new experiments.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicists</a> who work at the interplay of <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a> are called <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(particle_physics)" title="Phenomenology (particle physics)">phenomenologists</a>, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">fundamental theory</a>.</p>
<p>Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> was unified this way.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[d]</a></sup> Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[e]</a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation" title="Many-worlds interpretation">parallel universes</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">multiverse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Higher_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher dimension">higher dimensions</a>. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experimental</a> physics expands, and is expanded by, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. Experimental physicists involved in <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> design and perform experiments with equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, whereas those involved in <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" title="Applied research">applied research</a> often work in industry developing technologies such as <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a> has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well-explored by theorists.<sup id="cite_ref-feynman1965p157-experiment_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynman1965p157-experiment-54">[49]</a></sup></p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scope_and_aims">Scope and aims</span></h3>
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Physics involves modeling the natural world with theory, usually quantitative. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> to explain its behavior: the purview of the branch of physics known as <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>.</div>
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<p>Physics covers a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest <a href="/wiki/Superclusters" class="mw-redirect" title="Superclusters">superclusters</a> of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "<a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">fundamental science</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3-50">[47]</a></sup> Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to <a href="/wiki/Root_cause" title="Root cause">root causes</a>, and then connect these causes together.</p>
<p>For example, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">ancient Chinese</a> observed that certain rocks (<a href="/wiki/Lodestone" title="Lodestone">lodestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> knew of other objects such as <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century, and came to be called <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force—<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. This process of "unifying" forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak nuclear force">weak nuclear force</a> are now considered to be two aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">electroweak interaction</a>. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Everything" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Everything">Theory of Everything</a>) for why nature is as it is (see section <i><a href="#Current_research">Current research</a></i> below for more information).</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Research_fields">Research fields</span></h3>
<p>Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">applied physics</a>. Some physics departments also support <a href="/wiki/Physics_education_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics education research">physics education research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics_outreach" title="Physics outreach">physics outreach</a>.</p>
<p>Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Specialisation_of_knowledge&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Specialisation of knowledge (page does not exist)">specialised</a>, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1879–1955) and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[f]</a></sup></p>
<p>The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table.</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Field</th>
<th>Subfields</th>
<th>Major theories</th>
<th>Concepts</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">Nuclear astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_astrophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle astrophysics">Particle astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle physics phenomenology">Particle physics phenomenology</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effective_field_theory" title="Effective field theory">Effective field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lattice_field_theory" title="Lattice field theory">Lattice field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lattice_gauge_theory" title="Lattice gauge theory">Lattice gauge theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">Gauge theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_unification_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand unification theory">Grand unification theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental force">Fundamental force</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravitational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong</a>), <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">Spontaneous symmetry breaking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">Seesaw mechanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Membrane_(M-Theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane (M-Theory)">Brane</a>, <a href="/wiki/String_(physics)" title="String (physics)">String</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum energy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_and_Molecular_astrophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic and Molecular astrophysics">Atomic and Molecular astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">Polarization (waves)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">Spectral line</a>, <a href="/wiki/Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir effect</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">Solid state physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_pressure_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure physics">High pressure physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Low-temperature physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanoscale and Mesoscopic physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bloch_wave" title="Bloch wave">Bloch wave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Density_functional_theory" title="Density functional theory">Density functional theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fermi_liquid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermi liquid">Fermi liquid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Many-body_theory" title="Many-body theory">Many-body theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_Mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical Mechanics">Statistical Mechanics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phases</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bose-Einstein_condensate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bose-Einstein condensate">Bose-Einstein condensate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">Electrical conduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a>,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">Gravitation physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_physics" title="Solar physics">Solar physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_physics" title="Space physics">Space physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy#Stellar_astronomy" title="Astronomy">Stellar astrophysics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic inflation">Cosmic inflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">Magnetohydrodynamics</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black hole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">Cosmic string</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">Cosmos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Gravitational singularity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Star</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Applied_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied Physics">Applied Physics</a></td>
<td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_physics" title="Accelerator physics">Accelerator physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agrophysics" title="Agrophysics">Agrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Physics">Chemical Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication Physics">Communication Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">Econophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser Physics">Laser Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">Optoelectronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics_of_computation" title="Physics of computation">Physics of computation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">Plasma physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum electronics">Quantum electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_dynamics" title="Vehicle dynamics">Vehicle dynamics</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Particle_physics">Particle physics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/220px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" width="220" height="203" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/330px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/440px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
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A simulated event in the CMS detector of the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>, featuring a possible appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary</a> constituents of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">interactions</a> between them.<sup id="cite_ref-aps-dpf_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aps-dpf-56">[50]</a></sup> In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">accelerators</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-halpern2010_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halpern2010-57">[51]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">detectors</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-grupen1999_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grupen1999-58">[52]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_particle_physics" title="Computational particle physics">computer programs</a><sup id="cite_ref-walsh2012_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-walsh2012-59">[53]</a></sup> necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">collisions</a> of other particles.<sup id="cite_ref-iop-hepp_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iop-hepp-60">[54]</a></sup></p>
<p>Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and <a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">fields</a> are described by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oerter2006_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oerter2006-61">[55]</a></sup> The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (<a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>) that interact via the <a href="/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong nuclear force">strong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak nuclear force">weak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental force">fundamental forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oerter2006_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oerter2006-61">[55]</a></sup> Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a>, <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-gribbin1998_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gribbin1998-62">[56]</a></sup> The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oerter2006_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oerter2006-61">[55]</a></sup> In July 2012 <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson,<sup id="cite_ref-eonr-higgs_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eonr-higgs-63">[57]</a></sup> an integral part of a <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a> is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> generation and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Materials_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials engineering">materials engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical_physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atomic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecular</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optical</a> physics (AMO) is the study of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>–matter and <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>–matter interactions on the scale of single <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> scales. All three areas include both <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical</a>, semi-classical and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum</a> treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic physics</a> studies the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> shells of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a></sup> low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> (see, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hyperfine_splitting" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperfine splitting">hyperfine splitting</a>), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> are considered part of <a href="/wiki/High-energy_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High-energy physics">high-energy physics</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a> focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. <a href="/wiki/Optical_physics" title="Optical physics">Optical physics</a> is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of <a href="/wiki/Optical_field" title="Optical field">optical fields</a> and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Condensed_matter_physics">Condensed matter physics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:352px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/350px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" width="350" height="230" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/525px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/700px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 2x" data-file-width="2507" data-file-height="1648" /></a>
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Velocity-distribution data of a gas of <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a> is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-taylorheinonen2002_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylorheinonen2002-67">[61]</a></sup> In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a> that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen2008_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen2008-68">[62]</a></sup></p>
<p>The most familiar examples of condensed phases are <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, which arise from the bonding by way of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic force</a> between <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-moore2011_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore2011-69">[63]</a></sup> More exotic condensed phases include the <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluid</a><sup id="cite_ref-leggett1999_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leggett1999-70">[64]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a><sup id="cite_ref-levy2001_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levy2001-71">[65]</a></sup> found in certain atomic systems at very low <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconducting</a> phase exhibited by <a href="/wiki/Conduction_electron" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction electron">conduction electrons</a> in certain materials,<sup id="cite_ref-stajiccoontzosborne2011_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stajiccoontzosborne2011-72">[66]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferromagnet">ferromagnetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiferromagnet">antiferromagnetic</a> phases of <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spins</a> on <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">atomic lattices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mattis2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mattis2006-73">[67]</a></sup></p>
<p>Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>, which is now considered one of its main subfields.<sup id="cite_ref-aps-dcmp_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aps-dcmp-74">[68]</a></sup> The term <i>condensed matter physics</i> was apparently coined by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip Anderson</a> when he renamed his research group—previously <i>solid-state theory</i>—in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-princeton-anderson_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-princeton-anderson-75">[69]</a></sup> In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.<sup id="cite_ref-aps-dcmp_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aps-dcmp-74">[68]</a></sup> Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen2008_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen2008-68">[62]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></div>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg/220px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg/330px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg/440px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6200" data-file-height="6200" /></a>
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<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The deepest visible-light image of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra_Deep_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble Ultra Deep Field">Hubble Ultra Deep Field</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_structure" title="Stellar structure">stellar structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a>, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a>. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.</p>
<p>The discovery by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jansky" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Jansky">Karl Jansky</a> in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a>. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for <a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">infrared</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">gamma-ray</a>, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray astronomy</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a> is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble</a>'s discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble diagram">Hubble diagram</a>, prompted rival explanations known as the <a href="/wiki/Steady_state_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Steady state theory">steady state</a> universe and the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>.</p>
<p>The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> and the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">cosmological principle</a>. Cosmologists have recently established the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">ΛCDM model</a> of the evolution of the universe, which includes <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>.</p>
<p>Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a> over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or clarify existing models of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa-glast_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-glast-76">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[71]</a></sup> In particular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter is possible over the next several years.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa-glast-darkmatter_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-glast-darkmatter-78">[72]</a></sup> Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is composed of <a href="/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Weakly interacting massive particle">weakly interacting massive particles</a>, complementing similar experiments with the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> and other underground detectors.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/IBEX" class="mw-redirect" title="IBEX">IBEX</a> is already yielding new <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysical">astrophysical</a> discoveries: "No one knows what is creating the <a href="/wiki/Energetic_neutral_atom" title="Energetic neutral atom">ENA (energetic neutral atoms)</a> ribbon" along the <a href="/wiki/Termination_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Termination shock">termination shock</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>, "but everyone agrees that it means the textbook picture of the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a>—in which the Solar System's enveloping pocket filled with the solar wind's charged particles is plowing through the onrushing 'galactic wind' of the interstellar medium in the shape of a comet—is wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-kerr2009_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kerr2009-79">[73]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_research">Current research</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">List of unsolved problems in physics</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG/220px-Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG" width="220" height="160" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG/330px-Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG/440px-Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="468" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagram</a> signed by <a href="/wiki/R._P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="R. P. Feynman">R. P. Feynman</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/220px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/330px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/440px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1716" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
A typical event described by physics: a <a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">magnet</a> levitating above a <a href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">superconductor</a> demonstrates the <a href="/wiki/Meissner_effect" title="Meissner effect">Meissner effect</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts.</p>
<p>In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">high-temperature superconductivity</a>. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">quantum computers</a>.</p>
<p>In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> have non-zero <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">solar neutrino problem</a>, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a> have begun probing energy scales in the <a href="/wiki/TeV" class="mw-redirect" title="TeV">TeV</a> range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetric particles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a></sup></p>
<p>Theoretical attempts to unify <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> into a single theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">superstring theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">loop quantum gravity</a>.</p>
<p>Many <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmological</a> phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of <a href="/wiki/GZK_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="GZK paradox">ultra-high energy cosmic rays</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">baryon asymmetry</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerating universe">acceleration of the universe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxy rotation problem">anomalous rotation rates of galaxies</a>.</p>
<p>Although much progress has been made in high-energy, <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantum</a>, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" title="Complex systems">complexity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nrc1997v9p161_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrc1997v9p161-81">[75]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-kellert1993p32_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kellert1993p32-82">[76]</a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a><sup id="cite_ref-burchard2002p2_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burchard2002p2-83">[77]</a></sup> are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, the shape of water <a href="/wiki/Droplet" class="mw-redirect" title="Droplet">droplets</a>, mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> <a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">catastrophes</a>, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a></sup></p>
<p>These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern <a href="/wiki/Mathematical" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical">mathematical</a> methods and <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a>, which enabled <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a> to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> research, as exemplified by the study of <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a> and the observation of <a href="/wiki/Pattern_formation" title="Pattern formation">pattern formation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> systems. In the 1932 <i>Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Horace_Lamb" title="Horace Lamb">Horace Lamb</a> said:<sup id="cite_ref-goldstein1969_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldstein1969-85">[79]</a></sup></p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
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<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></td>
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<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png/32px-Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png" width="32" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png/48px-Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png/64px-Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cosmology" title="Portal:Cosmology">Cosmology portal</a></td>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="Book icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" width="30" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">
<ul style="font-weight: bold">
<li><a href="/wiki/Book:Physics" title="Book:Physics">Book: Physics</a></li>
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</tr>
</table>
<table class="multicol" role="presentation" style="&quot;border-collapse:">
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<dl>
<dt>General</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_classical_physics" title="Glossary of classical physics">Glossary of classical physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Glossary of physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles" title="Index of physics articles">Index of physics articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elementary_physics_formulae" class="mw-redirect" title="List of elementary physics formulae">List of elementary physics formulae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elementary_physics_formulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementary physics formulae">Elementary physics formulae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_physics" title="List of important publications in physics">List of important publications in physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physicists" title="List of physicists">List of physicists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physics_concepts_in_primary_and_secondary_education_curricula" title="List of physics concepts in primary and secondary education curricula">List of physics concepts in primary and secondary education curricula</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physics" title="Outline of physics">Outline of physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physics_outreach" title="Physics outreach">Physics outreach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perfection#Physics_and_chemistry" title="Perfection">Perfection in physics and chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics" title="Relationship between mathematics and physics">Relationship between mathematics and physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_developments_in_theoretical_physics" title="Timeline of developments in theoretical physics">Timeline of developments in theoretical physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries</a></li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Main branches</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
<td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<dl>
<dt>Related fields</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Interdisciplinary fields incorporating physics</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">Econophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> or the <a href="/wiki/World_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (philosophy)">philosophical world</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>'s 1620 <i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a></i> was critical in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_scientific_method" title="History of scientific method">development of scientific method</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Calculus was independently developed at around the same time by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>; while Leibniz was the first to publish his work, and developed much of the notation used for calculus today, Newton was the first to develop calculus and apply it to physical problems. See also <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, the influence of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter" title="Johann Wilhelm Ritter">Ritter</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Concepts which are denoted <i>hypothetical</i> can change with time. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> of nineteenth century physics was denigrated by some, including <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>'s critique of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a>'s formulation of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>. By the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, which was innovated at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a>, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for <a href="/wiki/ArXiv.org" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv.org">arXiv.org</a></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-etymonline-physics-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etymonline-physics_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physics&amp;allowed_in_frame=0">"physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=physics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphysics%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&amp;rft.pub=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-etymonline-physic-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etymonline-physic_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physic&amp;allowed_in_frame=0">"physic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=physic&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphysic%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&amp;rft.pub=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-LSJ-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LSJ_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fu/sis"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φ?σις</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fusiko/s"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυσική</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=e)pisth/mh"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">?πιστήμη</span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963-atomic-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963-atomic_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">At the start of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics" title="The Feynman Lectures on Physics">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> offers the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" title="Atomic theory">atomic hypothesis</a> as the single most prolific scientific concept: "If, in some cataclysm, all [] scientific knowledge were to be destroyed [save] one sentence&#160;[...] what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is&#160;[...] that <i>all things are made up of atoms&#160;– little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another</i>&#160;..." (<a href="#CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands1963">Feynman, Leighton &amp; Sands 1963</a>, p.&#160;I-2)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-maxwell1878-physicalscience-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-maxwell1878-physicalscience_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events." (<a href="#CITEREFMaxwell1878">Maxwell 1878</a>, p.&#160;9)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (...) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves.<a href="#CITEREFYoungFreedman2014">Young &amp; Freedman 2014</a>, p.&#160;1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-youngfreedman2014p2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p2_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena."<a href="#CITEREFYoungFreedman2014">Young &amp; Freedman 2014</a>, p.&#160;2</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-holzner2003-physics-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-holzner2003-physics_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." (<a href="#CITEREFHolzner2006">Holzner 2006</a>, p.&#160;7)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-krupp2003-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krupp2003_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krupp2003_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrupp2003">Krupp 2003</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-aaboe1991-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aaboe1991_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe1991">Aaboe 1991</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-clagett1995-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-clagett1995_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClagett1995">Clagett 1995</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-thurston1994-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thurston1994_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThurston1994">Thurston 1994</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-singer2008p35-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-singer2008p35_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinger2008">Singer 2008</a>, p.&#160;35</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-lloyd1970pp108-109-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lloyd1970pp108-109_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1970">Lloyd 1970</a>, pp.&#160;108–109</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-about-atomism-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-about-atomism_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGill" class="citation web">Gill, N.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/presocraticphiloso/p/Atomism.htm">"Atomism - Pre-Socratic Philosophy of Atomism"</a>. <i>Ancient/Classical History</i>. <a href="/wiki/About.com" title="About.com">About.com</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Atomism+-+Pre-Socratic+Philosophy+of+Atomism&amp;rft.aufirst=N.S.&amp;rft.aulast=Gill&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fancienthistory.about.com%2Fod%2Fpresocraticphiloso%2Fp%2FAtomism.htm&amp;rft.jtitle=Ancient%2FClassical+History&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dallal, Ahmad. <i>Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History</i>. New Haven:Yale University Press. pg 39</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openeye.org.uk/2013/04/a-short-history-of-pinhole-by-eleanor-suggett/">"History Of Pinhole"</a>. <i>www.openeye.org.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=History+Of+Pinhole&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openeye.org.uk%2F2013%2F04%2Fa-short-history-of-pinhole-by-eleanor-suggett%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=www.openeye.org.uk&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slideshare.net/trkyem/ibn-alhaytham-the-father-of-optics">"IBN AL-HAYTHAM (THE FATHER OF OPTICS)"</a>. 2012-08-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=IBN+AL-HAYTHAM+%28THE+FATHER+OF+OPTICS%29&amp;rft.date=2012-08-16&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Ftrkyem%2Fibn-alhaytham-the-father-of-optics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-benchaim2004-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-benchaim2004_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Chaim2004">Ben-Chaim 2004</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuicciardini1999">Guicciardini 1999</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-allen1997-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-allen1997_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen1997">Allen 1997</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-schoolscience-industrialrevolution-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schoolscience-industrialrevolution_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/IoP/14-16/biogs/biogs5.html">"The Industrial Revolution"</a>. Schoolscience.org, <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresources.schoolscience.co.uk%2FIoP%2F14-16%2Fbiogs%2Fbiogs5.html&amp;rft.pub=Schoolscience.org%2C+Institute+of+Physics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-relativity-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-relativity_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO.27ConnorRobertson1996a">O'Connor &amp; Robertson 1996a</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO.27ConnorRobertson1996b">O'Connor &amp; Robertson 1996b</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-donut2001-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-donut2001_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDONUT2001">DONUT 2001</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-cho2012-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cho2012_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCho2012">Cho 2012</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200502/beyond_the_standard_model.pdf">John Womersley, Beyond the standard model</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noll notes that some universities still use this title —Walter Noll (23 Jun 2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.cmu.edu/~wn0g/noll/PFNP.pdf">"On the Past and Future of Natural Philosophy"</a> <i>Journal of Elasticity</i> July 2006, <b>84</b>(1) pp 1-11</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rosenberg2006ch1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rosenberg2006ch1_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenberg2006">Rosenberg 2006</a>, Chapter 1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-godfreysmith2003ch14-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-godfreysmith2003ch14_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a>, Chapter 14: "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-godfreysmith2003ch15-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-godfreysmith2003ch15_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith 2003</a>, Chapter 15: "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-laplace1951-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-laplace1951_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaplace1951">Laplace 1951</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-schroedinger1983-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schroedinger1983_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchr.C3.B6dinger1983">Schrödinger 1983</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-schroedinger1995-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schroedinger1995_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchr.C3.B6dinger1995">Schrödinger 1995</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-hawkingpenrose1996p4-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hawkingpenrose1996p4_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"I think that Roger is a Platonist at heart but he must answer for himself." (<a href="#CITEREFHawkingPenrose1996">Hawking &amp; Penrose 1996</a>, p.&#160;4)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-penrose2004-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-penrose2004_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenrose2004">Penrose 2004</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenroseShimonyCartwrightHawking1997">Penrose et al. 1997</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-britannica-acoustics-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica-acoustics_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/4044/acoustics">"acoustics"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=acoustics&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F4044%2Facoustics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioacoustics.info/">"Bioacoustics – the International Journal of Animal Sound and its Recording"</a>. Taylor &amp; Francis<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Bioacoustics+%93+the+International+Journal+of+Animal+Sound+and+its+Recording&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioacoustics.info%2F&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Acoustical Society of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com/education_outreach/careers_in_acoustics">"Acoustics and You (A Career in Acoustics?)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.au=Acoustical+Society+of+America&amp;rft.btitle=Acoustics+and+You+%28A+Career+in+Acoustics%3F%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com%2Feducation_outreach%2Fcareers_in_acoustics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-dijksterhuis1986-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dijksterhuis1986_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDijksterhuis1986">Dijksterhuis 1986</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-mastin2010-plato-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mastin2010-plato_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Although usually remembered today as a philosopher, Plato was also one of ancient Greece's most important patrons of mathematics. Inspired by Pythagoras, he founded his Academy in Athens in 387 BC, where he stressed mathematics as a way of understanding more about reality. In particular, he was convinced that geometry was the key to unlocking the secrets of the universe. The sign above the Academy entrance read: 'Let no-one ignorant of geometry enter here.'" (<a href="#CITEREFMastin2010">Mastin 2010</a>)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." – <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> (1623), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a></i>, as quoted in <a href="#CITEREFToraldo_Di_Francia1976">Toraldo Di Francia 1976</a>, p.&#160;10</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-applicationsofmathematics-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-applicationsofmathematics_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/tour_sci.html">"Applications of Mathematics to the Sciences"</a>. Math.niu.edu. 25 January 2000<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Applications+of+Mathematics+to+the+Sciences&amp;rft.date=2000-01-25&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.niu.edu%2F~rusin%2Fknown-math%2Findex%2Ftour_sci.html&amp;rft.pub=Math.niu.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-jmp-def-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jmp-def_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.researchgate.net/journal/0022-2488_Journal_of_Mathematical_Physics">"Journal of Mathematical Physics"</a>. ResearchGate<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2014</span>. <q>mathematical physics — that is, the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Journal+of+Mathematical+Physics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fjournal%2F0022-2488_Journal_of_Mathematical_Physics&amp;rft.pub=ResearchGate&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-aaas1917p645-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aaas1917p645_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American Association for the Advancement of Science, Science. 1917. Page 645</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands1963">Feynman, Leighton &amp; Sands 1963</a>, Chapter 3: "The Relation of Physics to Other Sciences"; see also <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Special_sciences" title="Special sciences">special sciences</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-honderich1995pp474-476-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-honderich1995pp474-476_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHonderich1995">Honderich 1995</a>, pp.&#160;474–476</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-feynman1965p157-experiment-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-feynman1965p157-experiment_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In fact experimenters have a certain individual character. They ... very often do their experiments in a region in which people know the theorist has not made any guesses." (<a href="#CITEREFFeynman1965">Feynman 1965</a>, p.&#160;157)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-aps-dpf-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aps-dpf_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/units/dpf/index.cfm">"Division of Particles &amp; Fields"</a>. American Physical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Division+of+Particles+%26+Fields&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Funits%2Fdpf%2Findex.cfm&amp;rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-halpern2010-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-halpern2010_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern2010">Halpern 2010</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-grupen1999-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grupen1999_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrupen1999">Grupen 1999</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-walsh2012-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-walsh2012_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalsh2012">Walsh 2012</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-iop-hepp-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iop-hepp_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iop.org/activity/groups/subject/hepp/index.html">"High Energy Particle Physics Group"</a>. Institute of Physics<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=High+Energy+Particle+Physics+Group&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iop.org%2Factivity%2Fgroups%2Fsubject%2Fhepp%2Findex.html&amp;rft.pub=Institute+of+Physics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-oerter2006-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oerter2006_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oerter2006_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oerter2006_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOerter2006">Oerter 2006</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-gribbin1998-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gribbin1998_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGribbinGribbinGribbin1998">Gribbin, Gribbin &amp; Gribbin 1998</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-eonr-higgs-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eonr-higgs_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-archived.web.cern.ch/press-archived/PressReleases/Releases2012/PR17.12E.html">"CERN experiments observe particle consistent with long-sought Higgs boson"</a>. European Organization for Nuclear Research. 4 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=CERN+experiments+observe+particle+consistent+with+long-sought+Higgs+boson&amp;rft.date=2012-07-04&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-archived.web.cern.ch%2Fpress-archived%2FPressReleases%2FReleases2012%2FPR17.12E.html&amp;rft.pub=European+Organization+for+Nuclear+Research&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, AMO research groups at <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/physics/research/abcp/areas.html#amo">"MIT AMO Group"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=MIT+AMO+Group&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fphysics%2Fresearch%2Fabcp%2Fareas.html%23amo&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.korea.ac.kr/research/research_amo.php">"Korea University, Physics AMO Group"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Korea+University%2C+Physics+AMO+Group&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.korea.ac.kr%2Fresearch%2Fresearch_amo.php&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phys.au.dk/forskning/forskningsomraader/amo/">"Aarhus Universitet, AMO Group"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Aarhus+Universitet%2C+AMO+Group&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphys.au.dk%2Fforskning%2Fforskningsomraader%2Famo%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-taylorheinonen2002-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylorheinonen2002_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylorHeinonen2002">Taylor &amp; Heinonen 2002</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-cohen2008-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cohen2008_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cohen2008_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen2008">Cohen 2008</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-moore2011-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-moore2011_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2011">Moore 2011</a>, pp.&#160;255–258</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-leggett1999-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-leggett1999_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeggett1999">Leggett 1999</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-levy2001-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-levy2001_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy2001">Levy 2001</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stajiccoontzosborne2011-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stajiccoontzosborne2011_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStajicCoontzOsborne2011">Stajic, Coontz &amp; Osborne 2011</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-mattis2006-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mattis2006_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMattis2006">Mattis 2006</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-aps-dcmp-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aps-dcmp_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aps-dcmp_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/units/dcmp/history.cfm">"History of Condensed Matter Physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+Condensed+Matter+Physics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Funits%2Fdcmp%2Fhistory.cfm&amp;rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-princeton-anderson-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-princeton-anderson_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/physics/people/display_person.xml?netid=pwa&amp;display=faculty">"Philip Anderson"</a>. <i>Physics Faculty</i>. Princeton University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Philip+Anderson&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2Fphysics%2Fpeople%2Fdisplay_person.xml%3Fnetid%3Dpwa%26display%3Dfaculty&amp;rft.jtitle=Physics+Faculty&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nasa-glast-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasa-glast_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/main/questions_answers.html">"NASA – Q&amp;A on the GLAST Mission"</a>. <i>Nasa: Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</i>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. 28 August 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=NASA+%93+Q%26A+on+the+GLAST+Mission&amp;rft.date=2008-08-28&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2FGLAST%2Fmain%2Fquestions_answers.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Nasa%3A+Fermi+Gamma-ray+Space+Telescope&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/index.html">Nasa – Fermi Science</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/unidentified_sources.html">NASA – Scientists Predict Major Discoveries for GLAST</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nasa-glast-darkmatter-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasa-glast-darkmatter_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/dark_matter.html">"Dark Matter"</a>. Nasa.gov. 28 August 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.btitle=Dark+Matter&amp;rft.date=2008-08-28&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2FGLAST%2Fscience%2Fdark_matter.html&amp;rft.pub=Nasa.gov&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-kerr2009-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kerr2009_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKerr2009">Kerr 2009</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD.C3.98_Collaboration2007">DØ Collaboration 2007</a> finds a mass of 5.774 GeV for the <span><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" >
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</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee3ccc044358bfb1e6a97a5edf7817ff7bce1cf7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.079ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="\Xi _{b}^{-}" /></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nrc1997v9p161-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nrc1997v9p161_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNational_Research_CouncilCommittee_on_Technology_for_Future_Naval_Forces1997">National Research Council &amp; Committee on Technology for Future Naval Forces 1997</a>, p.&#160;161</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-kellert1993p32-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kellert1993p32_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellert1993">Kellert 1993</a>, p.&#160;32</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-burchard2002p2-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-burchard2002p2_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurchard2002">Burchard 2002</a>, p.&#160;2</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the work of <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a>, on 'systems far from equilibrium', and others, e.g., Heinrich M. Jaeger, <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Liu" title="Andrea Liu">Andrea J. Liu</a> (24 Sep 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jfi.uchicago.edu/~jaeger/group/JaegerGroupPapers/other/FarFromEquilPhys.pdf">"Far-From-Equilibrium Physics: An Overview"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://arxiv.org/abs/1009.4874">http://arxiv.org/abs/1009.4874</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-goldstein1969-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-goldstein1969_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1969">Goldstein 1969</a></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span></h2>
<div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul>
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<li><cite id="CITEREFAllen1997" class="citation web">Allen, D. (10 April 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/calc1/calc1.html">"Calculus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&amp;M University">Texas A&amp;M University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.aulast=Allen&amp;rft.btitle=Calculus&amp;rft.date=1997-04-10&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.tamu.edu%2F~dallen%2Fhistory%2Fcalc1%2Fcalc1.html&amp;rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
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<li><cite id="CITEREFBurchard2002" class="citation book">Burchard, H. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e6MEnPOhv7cC&amp;pg=PA2&amp;lpg=PA2#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>Applied Turbulence Modelling in Marine Waters</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-43795-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-43795-9">3-540-43795-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=H.&amp;rft.aulast=Burchard&amp;rft.btitle=Applied+Turbulence+Modelling+in+Marine+Waters&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De6MEnPOhv7cC%26pg%3DPA2%26lpg%3DPA2%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=3-540-43795-9&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCho2012" class="citation journal">Cho, A. (13 July 2012). "Higgs Boson Makes Its Debut After Decades-Long Search". <i>Science</i> <b>337</b> (6091): 141–143. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.337.6091.141">10.1126/science.337.6091.141</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22798574">22798574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Higgs+Boson+Makes+Its+Debut+After+Decades-Long+Search&amp;rft.aufirst=A.&amp;rft.aulast=Cho&amp;rft.date=2012-07-13&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.337.6091.141&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22798574&amp;rft.issue=6091&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.pages=141-143&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=337" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFClagett1995" class="citation book">Clagett, M. (1995). <i>Ancient Egyptian Science</i>. Volume 2. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.aulast=Clagett&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Science&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Philadelphia&amp;rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCohen2008" class="citation journal">Cohen, M.L. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prl.aps.org/edannounce/PhysRevLett.101.250001">"Fifty Years of Condensed Matter Physics"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i> <b>101</b> (5): 25001–25006. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhRvL.101y0001C">2008PhRvL.101y0001C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.101.250001">10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.250001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Fifty+Years+of+Condensed+Matter+Physics&amp;rft.aufirst=M.L.&amp;rft.aulast=Cohen&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprl.aps.org%2Fedannounce%2FPhysRevLett.101.250001&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PhRvL.101y0001C&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.101.250001&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&amp;rft.pages=25001-25006&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=101" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFD.C3.98_Collaboration2007" class="citation arxiv"><a href="/wiki/D%C3%98_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="DØ experiment">DØ Collaboration, 584 co-authors</a> (12 June 2007). "Direct observation of the strange 'b' baryon <span><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" >
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msubsup>
          <mi mathvariant="normal">&#x039E;<!-- Ξ --></mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>b</mi>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mo>&#x2212;<!-- − --></mo>
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        </msubsup>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Xi _{b}^{-}}</annotation>
  </semantics>
</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee3ccc044358bfb1e6a97a5edf7817ff7bce1cf7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.079ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="\Xi _{b}^{-}" /></span>". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/0706.1690v2">0706.1690v2</a> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/archive/hep-ex">hep-ex</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Direct+observation+of+the+strange+%27b%27+baryon+MATH+RENDER+ERROR&amp;rft.aufirst=584+co-authors&amp;rft.aulast=D%C3%98+Collaboration&amp;rft.date=2007-06-12&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0706.1690v2&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFDijksterhuis1986" class="citation book">Dijksterhuis, E.J. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getcited.org/pub/102471397"><i>The mechanization of the world picture: Pythagoras to Newton</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08403-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08403-9">978-0-691-08403-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=E.J.&amp;rft.aulast=Dijksterhuis&amp;rft.btitle=The+mechanization+of+the+world+picture%3A+Pythagoras+to+Newton&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getcited.org%2Fpub%2F102471397&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-08403-9&amp;rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFDONUT2001" class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/DONUT" title="DONUT">DONUT</a> (29 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-donut.fnal.gov/web_pages/standardmodelpg/TheStandardModel.html">"The Standard Model"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.au=DONUT&amp;rft.btitle=The+Standard+Model&amp;rft.date=2001-06-29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-donut.fnal.gov%2Fweb_pages%2Fstandardmodelpg%2FTheStandardModel.html&amp;rft.pub=Fermilab&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands1963" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman, R.P.</a>; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1963). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics" title="The Feynman Lectures on Physics">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a></i> <b>1</b>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-02116-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-02116-1">0-201-02116-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=R.P.&amp;rft.aulast=Feynman&amp;rft.au=Leighton%2C+R.B.&amp;rft.au=Sands%2C+M.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Feynman+Lectures+on+Physics&amp;rft.date=1963&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-201-02116-1&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1965" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman, R.P.</a> (1965). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" title="The Character of Physical Law">The Character of Physical Law</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-56003-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-56003-8">0-262-56003-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=R.P.&amp;rft.aulast=Feynman&amp;rft.btitle=The+Character+of+Physical+Law&amp;rft.date=1965&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-262-56003-8&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003" class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, P. (2003). <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-30063-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-30063-3">0-226-30063-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=P.&amp;rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&amp;rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-30063-3&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1969" class="citation journal">Goldstein, S. (1969). "Fluid Mechanics in the First Half of this Century". <i>Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics</i> <b>1</b>: 1–28. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969AnRFM...1....1G">1969AnRFM...1....1G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.01.010169.000245">10.1146/annurev.fl.01.010169.000245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Fluid+Mechanics+in+the+First+Half+of+this+Century&amp;rft.aufirst=S.&amp;rft.aulast=Goldstein&amp;rft.date=1969&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969AnRFM...1....1G&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.01.010169.000245&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Fluid+Mechanics&amp;rft.pages=1-28&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGribbinGribbinGribbin1998" class="citation book">Gribbin, J.R.; Gribbin, M.; Gribbin, J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzwbAQAAIAAJ"><i>Q is for Quantum: An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85578-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85578-3">978-0-684-85578-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=J.R.&amp;rft.au=Gribbin%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Gribbin%2C+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Gribbin&amp;rft.btitle=Q+is+for+Quantum%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Particle+Physics&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzwbAQAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-684-85578-3&amp;rft.pub=Free+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGrupen1999" class="citation journal">Grupen, Klaus (10 Jul 1999). "Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics: VIII ICFA School". <i>AIP Conference Proceedings</i> <b>536</b>: 3–34. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/physics/9906063">physics/9906063</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1361756">10.1063/1.1361756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Instrumentation+in+Elementary+Particle+Physics%3A+VIII+ICFA+School&amp;rft.aufirst=Klaus&amp;rft.aulast=Grupen&amp;rft.date=1999-07-10&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F9906063&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1361756&amp;rft.jtitle=AIP+Conference+Proceedings&amp;rft.pages=3-34&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=536" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGuicciardini1999" class="citation book">Guicciardini, N. (1999). <i>Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=N.&amp;rft.aulast=Guicciardini&amp;rft.btitle=Reading+the+Principia%3A+The+Debate+on+Newton%27s+Methods+for+Natural+Philosophy+from+1687+to+1736&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHalpern2010" class="citation book">Halpern, P. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JAxLVY96sqsC"><i>Collider: The Search for the World's Smallest Particles</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" title="John Wiley &amp; Sons">John Wiley &amp; Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-64391-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-64391-4">978-0-470-64391-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=P.&amp;rft.aulast=Halpern&amp;rft.btitle=Collider%3A+The+Search+for+the+World%27s+Smallest+Particles&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJAxLVY96sqsC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-64391-4&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHawkingPenrose1996" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, R.</a> (1996). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nature_of_Space_and_Time" title="The Nature of Space and Time">The Nature of Space and Time</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05084-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05084-8">0-691-05084-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=S.&amp;rft.aulast=Hawking&amp;rft.au=Penrose%2C+R.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Space+and+Time&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-691-05084-8&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHolzner2006" class="citation book">Holzner, S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0764554336"><i>Physics for Dummies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" title="John Wiley &amp; Sons">John Wiley &amp; Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-61841-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-61841-8">0-470-61841-8</a>. <q>Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=S.&amp;rft.aulast=Holzner&amp;rft.btitle=Physics+for+Dummies&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fgp%2Freader%2F0764554336&amp;rft.isbn=0-470-61841-8&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHonderich1995" class="citation book">Honderich, T. (editor) (1995). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy" title="The Oxford Companion to Philosophy">The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</a></i> (1 ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp.&#160;474–476. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866132-0">0-19-866132-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=T.+%28editor%29&amp;rft.aulast=Honderich&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.edition=1&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-866132-0&amp;rft.pages=474-476&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKellert1993" class="citation book">Kellert, S.H. (1993). <i>In the Wake of Chaos: Unpredictable Order in Dynamical Systems</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-42976-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-42976-8">0-226-42976-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=S.H.&amp;rft.aulast=Kellert&amp;rft.btitle=In+the+Wake+of+Chaos%3A+Unpredictable+Order+in+Dynamical+Systems&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-226-42976-8&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKerr2009" class="citation news">Kerr, R.A. (16 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/sci;326/5951/350-a?maxtoshow=&amp;HITS=10&amp;hits=10&amp;RESULTFORMAT=&amp;fulltext=IBEX&amp;searchid=1&amp;FIRSTINDEX=0&amp;issue=5951&amp;resourcetype=HWCIT">"Tying Up the Solar System With a Ribbon of Charged Particles"</a>. <i>Science</i> <b>326</b> (5951). pp.&#160;350–351<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Tying+Up+the+Solar+System+With+a+Ribbon+of+Charged+Particles&amp;rft.aufirst=R.A.&amp;rft.aulast=Kerr&amp;rft.date=2009-10-16&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fsummary%2Fsci%3B326%2F5951%2F350-a%3Fmaxtoshow%3D%26HITS%3D10%26hits%3D10%26RESULTFORMAT%3D%26fulltext%3DIBEX%26searchid%3D1%26FIRSTINDEX%3D0%26issue%3D5951%26resourcetype%3DHWCIT&amp;rft.issue=5951&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.pages=350-351&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=326" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKrupp2003" class="citation book">Krupp, E.C. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7rMAJ87WTF0C"><i>Echoes of the Ancient Skies: The Astronomy of Lost Civilizations</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-42882-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-42882-6">0-486-42882-6</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=E.C.&amp;rft.aulast=Krupp&amp;rft.btitle=Echoes+of+the+Ancient+Skies%3A+The+Astronomy+of+Lost+Civilizations&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7rMAJ87WTF0C&amp;rft.isbn=0-486-42882-6&amp;rft.pub=Dover+Publications&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLaplace1951" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Laplace, P.S.</a> (1951). <i>A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities</i>. Translated from the 6th French edition by Truscott, F.W. and Emory, F.L. New York: <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=P.S.&amp;rft.aulast=Laplace&amp;rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+Essay+on+Probabilities&amp;rft.date=1951&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Dover+Publications&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLeggett1999" class="citation journal">Leggett, A.J. (1999). "Superfluidity". <i>Reviews of Modern Physics</i> <b>71</b> (2): S318–S323. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999RvMPS..71..318L">1999RvMPS..71..318L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.71.S318">10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Superfluidity&amp;rft.aufirst=A.J.&amp;rft.aulast=Leggett&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999RvMPS..71..318L&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.71.S318&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&amp;rft.pages=S318-S323&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=71" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLevy2001" class="citation journal">Levy, B.G. (December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_12/14_1.shtml?bypassSSO=1">"Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose-Einstein Condensates"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i> <b>54</b> (12): 14. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PhT....54l..14L">2001PhT....54l..14L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1445529">10.1063/1.1445529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Cornell%2C+Ketterle%2C+and+Wieman+Share+Nobel+Prize+for+Bose-Einstein+Condensates&amp;rft.aufirst=B.G.&amp;rft.aulast=Levy&amp;rft.date=2001-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicstoday.org%2Fjournals%2Fdoc%2FPHTOAD-ft%2Fvol_54%2Fiss_12%2F14_1.shtml%3FbypassSSO%3D1&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PhT....54l..14L&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1445529&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&amp;rft.pages=14&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=54" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1970" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/G._E._R._Lloyd" title="G. E. R. Lloyd">Lloyd, G.E.R.</a> (1970). <i>Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle</i>. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Chatto_and_Windus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatto and Windus">Chatto and Windus</a>; <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton &amp; Company">W. W. Norton &amp; Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00583-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00583-6">0-393-00583-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=G.E.R.&amp;rft.aulast=Lloyd&amp;rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Science%3A+Thales+to+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1970&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-393-00583-6&amp;rft.place=London%3B+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Chatto+and+Windus%3B+W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMattis2006" class="citation book">Mattis, D.C. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VkNBAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Theory of Magnetism Made Simple</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-238-579-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-238-579-6">978-981-238-579-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=D.C.&amp;rft.aulast=Mattis&amp;rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Magnetism+Made+Simple&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVkNBAQAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-981-238-579-6&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1878" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell, J.C.</a> (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=noRgWP0_UZ8C&amp;printsec=titlepage&amp;dq=matter+and+motion"><i>Matter and Motion</i></a>. D. Van Nostrand. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-66895-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-66895-9">0-486-66895-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=J.C.&amp;rft.aulast=Maxwell&amp;rft.btitle=Matter+and+Motion&amp;rft.date=1878&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DnoRgWP0_UZ8C%26printsec%3Dtitlepage%26dq%3Dmatter%2Band%2Bmotion&amp;rft.isbn=0-486-66895-9&amp;rft.pub=D.+Van+Nostrand&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMoore2011" class="citation book">Moore, J.T. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TRuP-BbS9xoC"><i>Chemistry For Dummies</i></a> (2 ed.). <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" title="John Wiley &amp; Sons">John Wiley &amp; Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-00730-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-00730-3">978-1-118-00730-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=J.T.&amp;rft.aulast=Moore&amp;rft.btitle=Chemistry+For+Dummies&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.edition=2&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTRuP-BbS9xoC&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-118-00730-3&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_CouncilCommittee_on_Technology_for_Future_Naval_Forces1997" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a>; Committee on Technology for Future Naval Forces (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5869&amp;page=161"><i>Technology for the United States Navy and Marine Corps, 2000-2035 Becoming a 21st-Century Force: Volume 9: Modeling and Simulation</i></a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/The_National_Academies_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The National Academies Press">The National Academies Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05928-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05928-2">978-0-309-05928-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.au=Committee+on+Technology+for+Future+Naval+Forces&amp;rft.au=National+Research+Council&amp;rft.btitle=Technology+for+the+United+States+Navy+and+Marine+Corps%2C+2000-2035+Becoming+a+21st-Century+Force%3A+Volume+9%3A+Modeling+and+Simulation&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D5869%26page%3D161&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-309-05928-2&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&amp;rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFO.27ConnorRobertson1996a" class="citation web">O'Connor, J.J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, E.F.</a> (February 1996a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Special_relativity.html">"Special Relativity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Special+Relativity&amp;rft.aufirst=J.J.&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Connor&amp;rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.F.&amp;rft.date=1996-02&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FHistTopics%2FSpecial_relativity.html&amp;rft.jtitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+archive&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFO.27ConnorRobertson1996b" class="citation web">O'Connor, J.J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, E.F.</a> (May 1996b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html">"A History of Quantum Mechanics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=A+History+of+Quantum+Mechanics&amp;rft.aufirst=J.J.&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Connor&amp;rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.F.&amp;rft.date=1996-05&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk%2F~history%2FHistTopics%2FThe_Quantum_age_begins.html&amp;rft.jtitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+archive&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFOerter2006" class="citation book">Oerter, R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1KHuAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Pi_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pi Press">Pi Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-236678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-236678-6">978-0-13-236678-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rft.aulast=Oerter&amp;rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Almost+Everything%3A+The+Standard+Model%2C+the+Unsung+Triumph+of+Modern+Physics&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1KHuAAAAMAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-13-236678-6&amp;rft.pub=Pi+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPenroseShimonyCartwrightHawking1997" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, R.</a>; Shimony, A.; Cartwright, N.; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, S.</a> (1997). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Large,_the_Small_and_the_Human_Mind" title="The Large, the Small and the Human Mind">The Large, the Small and the Human Mind</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78572-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78572-3">0-521-78572-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.au=Cartwright%2C+N.&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rft.au=Hawking%2C+S.&amp;rft.aulast=Penrose&amp;rft.au=Shimony%2C+A.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Large%2C+the+Small+and+the+Human+Mind&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-78572-3&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPenrose2004" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, R.</a> (2004). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality" title="The Road to Reality">The Road to Reality</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-45443-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-45443-8">0-679-45443-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rft.aulast=Penrose&amp;rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Reality&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-679-45443-8&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2006" class="citation book">Rosenberg, Alex (2006). <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-34317-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-34317-8">0-415-34317-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Alex&amp;rft.aulast=Rosenberg&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-34317-8&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSchr.C3.B6dinger1983" class="citation book">Schrödinger, E. (1983). <i>My View of the World</i>. Ox Bow Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-918024-30-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-918024-30-7">0-918024-30-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=E.&amp;rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6dinger&amp;rft.btitle=My+View+of+the+World&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-918024-30-7&amp;rft.pub=Ox+Bow+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSchr.C3.B6dinger1995" class="citation book">Schrödinger, E. (1995). <i>The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics</i>. Ox Bow Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-881987-09-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-881987-09-4">1-881987-09-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=E.&amp;rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6dinger&amp;rft.btitle=The+Interpretation+of+Quantum+Mechanics&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=1-881987-09-4&amp;rft.pub=Ox+Bow+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSinger2008" class="citation book">Singer, C. (2008). <i>A Short History of Science to the 19th Century</i>. Streeter Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=C.&amp;rft.aulast=Singer&amp;rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Science+to+the+19th+Century&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Streeter+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFStajicCoontzOsborne2011" class="citation journal">Stajic, Jelena; Coontz, R.; Osborne, I. (8 April 2011). "Happy 100th, Superconductivity!". <i>Science</i> <b>332</b> (6026): 189. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332..189S">2011Sci...332..189S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.332.6026.189">10.1126/science.332.6026.189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.atitle=Happy+100th%2C+Superconductivity%21&amp;rft.au=Coontz%2C+R.&amp;rft.aufirst=Jelena&amp;rft.aulast=Stajic&amp;rft.au=Osborne%2C+I.&amp;rft.date=2011-04-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...332..189S&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.332.6026.189&amp;rft.issue=6026&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.pages=189&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=332" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylorHeinonen2002" class="citation book">Taylor, P.L.; Heinonen, O. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hyx6BjEX4U8C"><i>A Quantum Approach to Condensed Matter Physics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77827-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77827-5">978-0-521-77827-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=P.L.&amp;rft.au=Heinonen%2C+O.&amp;rft.aulast=Taylor&amp;rft.btitle=A+Quantum+Approach+to+Condensed+Matter+Physics&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhyx6BjEX4U8C&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-77827-5&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFThurston1994" class="citation book">Thurston, H. (1994). <i>Early Astronomy</i>. Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=H.&amp;rft.aulast=Thurston&amp;rft.btitle=Early+Astronomy&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFToraldo_Di_Francia1976" class="citation book">Toraldo Di Francia, G. (1976). <i>The Investigation of the Physical World</i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29925-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29925-X">0-521-29925-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft.aulast=Toraldo+Di+Francia&amp;rft.btitle=The+Investigation+of+the+Physical+World&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-29925-X&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2012" class="citation web">Walsh, K.M. (1 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=23098">"Plotting the Future for Computing in High-Energy and Nuclear Physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=K.M.&amp;rft.aulast=Walsh&amp;rft.btitle=Plotting+the+Future+for+Computing+in+High-Energy+and+Nuclear+Physics&amp;rft.date=2012-06-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bnl.gov%2Fnewsroom%2Fnews.php%3Fa%3D23098&amp;rft.pub=Brookhaven+National+Laboratory&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFYoungFreedman2014" class="citation book">Young, H.D.; Freedman, R.A. (2014). <i><a href="/wiki/University_Physics" title="University Physics">Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update</a></i> (13th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-29202-063-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-29202-063-1">978-1-29202-063-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics&amp;rft.aufirst=H.D.&amp;rft.au=Freedman%2C+R.A.&amp;rft.aulast=Young&amp;rft.btitle=Sears+and+Zemansky%27s+University+Physics+with+Modern+Physics+Technology+Update&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.edition=13th&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-29202-063-1&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/physics" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:physics">physics</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td>
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<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Physics_Study_Guide" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Physics Study Guide">Physics Study Guide</a></b></i></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:FHSST Physics">FHSST Physics</a></b></i></td>
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<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="38" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Physics" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Physics">Physics</a></b></i></td>
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<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/40px-Wikiversity-logo.svg.png" width="40" height="32" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/60px-Wikiversity-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/80px-Wikiversity-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning materials about <i><b><a href="//en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category:Physics" class="extiw" title="v:Category:Physics">Category:Physics</a></b></i></td>
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<p><b>General</b></p>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia_of_physics">Encyclopedia of Physics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a></li>
<li>de Haas, Paul, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090826083339/http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/">Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived August 26, 2009)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicscentral.com/">PhysicsCentral</a> – Web portal run by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/">American Physical Society</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.org/">Physics.org</a> – Web portal run by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iop.org/">Institute of Physics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://musr.physics.ubc.ca/~jess/hr/skept/"><i>The Skeptic's Guide to Physics</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/">Usenet Physics FAQ</a> – A FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/">Website of the Nobel Prize in physics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/">World of Physics</a> An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/naturephysics"><i>Nature</i>: Physics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.aps.org/">Physics</a> announced 17 July 2008 by the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org//Science/Physics/Publications/">Physics/Publications</a> at <a href="/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsworld.com/">Physicsworld.com</a> – News website from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publishing.iop.org/">Institute of Physics Publishing</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physlib.com/">Physics Central</a> – includes articles on astronomy, particle physics, and mathematics.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vega.org.uk/">The Vega Science Trust</a> – science videos, including physics</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/JustinMorganPhysicsLightningTour/">Video: Physics "Lightning" Tour with Justin Morgan</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learner.org/resources/series42.html">52-part video course: The Mechanical Universe...and Beyond</a> Note: also available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121027101214/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6774539130229106025">01 – Introduction</a> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Videos" title="Google Videos">Google Videos</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/hframe.html">HyperPhysics website</a> – <a href="/wiki/HyperPhysics" title="HyperPhysics">HyperPhysics</a>, a physics and astronomy mind-map from <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State University</a></li>
</ul>
<p><b>Organizations</b></p>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/index.html">AIP.org</a> – Website of the <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics" title="American Institute of Physics">American Institute of Physics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/">APS.org</a> – Website of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iop.org/">IOP.org</a> – Website of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://planetphysics.org/">PlanetPhysics.org</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/">Royal Society</a> – Although not exclusively a physics institution, it has a strong history of physics</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spsnational.org/">SPS National</a> – Website of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Physics_Students" title="Society of Physics Students">Society of Physics Students</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%">The <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">fundamental interactions</a> of <strong class="selflink">physics</strong></div>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">Physical forces
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">Strong interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">Gravitation</a></li>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">Radiations
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">Hypothetical forces
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weak_gravity_conjecture" title="Weak gravity conjecture">Weak gravity conjecture</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%">Branches of <strong class="selflink">physics</strong></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Divisions</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">Ballistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics" title="Lagrangian mechanics">Lagrangian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics" title="Hamiltonian mechanics">Hamiltonian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">Fluid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Fields</a></li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">Gravitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Relativity</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By speciality</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_physics" title="Accelerator physics">Accelerator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_physics" title="Stellar physics">Stellar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_physics" title="Solar physics">Solar</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_physics" title="Space physics">Space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic–molecular–optical <span style="font-size:90%;">(AMO)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communication_physics" title="Communication physics">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mesoscopic_physics" title="Mesoscopic physics">Mesoscopic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soft_condensed_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft condensed matter">Soft</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_physics" title="Digital physics">Digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Material_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Material physics">Material</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Geometrical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">Physical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_optics" title="Nonlinear optics">Nonlinear</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(particle_physics)" title="Phenomenology (particle physics)">Phenomenology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">Plasma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_physics" title="Statistical physics">Statistical</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Physics in life science</div>
</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cardiophysics" title="Cardiophysics">Cardiophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laser_medicine" title="Laser medicine">Laser medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging‎</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Physics with<br />
other sciences</div>
</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agrophysics" title="Agrophysics">Agrophysics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_physics" title="Soil physics">Soil</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_physics" title="Cloud physics">Cloud</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">Econophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a></div>
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(тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="//bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="भौतिकी – भोजप?री" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजप?री</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo"><a href="//bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B" title="དངོས་?མས་རིག་པ་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Бодо? зүй – бур?ад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Бур?ад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="//ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn"><a href="//sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundoyetsimba" title="Fundoyetsimba – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co"><a href="//co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffiseg" title="Ffiseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysik" title="Fysik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv"><a href="//dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%A9%DE%92%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%87%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ފީޒިޔާއީ އި?ްމު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv">ދިވެހިބަ?ް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb"><a href="//dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz"><a href="//dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94" title="དངོས་?མས་རིག་པ – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz">ཇོང་?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Füüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Φυσική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziko" title="Fiziko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="//ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="?یزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhautik_vigyan" title="Bhautik vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="//fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alisfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Alisfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique" title="Physique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuerkunde" title="Natuerkunde – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a href="//fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiche" title="Fisiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisic" title="Fisic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a href="//gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishig" title="Fishig – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiosaig" title="Fiosaig – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物?學 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki"><a href="//ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><a href="//gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AD%E0%AB%8C%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="ભૌતિકશાસ?ત?ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu">ગ?જરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="//hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu%CC%8Dt-l%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Vu?t-lî-ho?k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal"><a href="//xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%BB%D2%BB%D0%BD" title="Бодьзүлһн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="물리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw"><a href="//haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81laik%C5%ABlohea" title="K?laikūlohea – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Ֆիզիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास?त?र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb"><a href="//hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziko" title="Fiziko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig"><a href="//ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica" title="Physica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="//ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu"><a href="//iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%86%E1%92%AB%E1%91%A6%E1%93%B1%E1%93%95%E1%95%86%E1%93%82%E1%96%85/umatsuliriniq" title="?ᒫᑦᓱᓕᕆᓂᖅ/umatsuliriniq – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu">?ᓄᒃᑎ?ᑦ/inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os"><a href="//os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Физикæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="//xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifiziki" title="Ifiziki – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Eðlisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="פיזיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl"><a href="//kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uumaatsulerineq" title="Uumaatsulerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೌತಶಾಸ?ತ?ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam"><a href="//pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკ? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks"><a href="//ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="?یزیک – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks">कॉश?र / کٲش?ر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb"><a href="//csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka" title="Fizyka – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizikia" title="Fizikia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg"><a href="//kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="//ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiz%C3%AEk" title="Fizîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a href="//lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="//lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="//lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%96%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ວັດຖຸວິທະ?າ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lrc"><a href="//lrc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A6%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%99%D9%86%D8%A6%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%86%DB%8C" title="سئریشت دوٙنئسمأنی – Northern Luri" lang="lrc" hreflang="lrc">لۊری شومالی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica" title="Physica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><a href="//lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixica" title="Fixica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurkunde" title="Natuurkunde – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln"><a href="//ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADz%C3%ADk%C3%AD" title="Fízíkí – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/termu%27eske" title="termu'eske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="//lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൗതികശാസ?ത?രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिकशास?त?र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf"><a href="//xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკ? – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf">მ?რგ?ლური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="?يزيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn"><a href="//mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="?یزیک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn">ماز?رونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min"><a href="//min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min">Baso Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="//cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%ACk-l%C4%AB" title="Ŭk-lī – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Физик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရူပဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="//nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iuhc%C4%81y%C5%8Dtl" title="Iuhc?y?tl – N?huatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">N?huatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurkunde" title="Natuurkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="//nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netuurkunde" title="Netuurkunde – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास?त?र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास?त?र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="物?学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap"><a href="//nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADseca" title="Físeca – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a href="//frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCsiik" title="Füsiik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih"><a href="//pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiks" title="Fisiks – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikk" title="Fysikk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikk" title="Fysikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm"><a href="//nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C5%B7sique" title="Phŷsique – Nouormand" lang="nrm" hreflang="nrm">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov"><a href="//nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisike" title="Fisike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="//mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Физике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or"><a href="//or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A5_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ପଦାର?ଥ ବିଜ?ଞାନ – Oriya" lang="or" hreflang="or">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om"><a href="//om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiiziksii" title="Fiiziksii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="?زکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%86%DA%81%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="پن?پوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizix" title="Fizix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="//km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="រូបវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសា?្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="//pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisike" title="Fisike – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica" title="Fìsica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka" title="Fizyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizic%C4%83" title="Fizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachaykamay" title="Pachaykamay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фізіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm"><a href="//sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiki" title="Fisiki – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="भौतिकशास?त?रम? – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="//sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica" title="Fìsica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naitural_philosophy" title="Naitural philosophy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><a href="//stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st"><a href="//st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiksi" title="Fisiksi – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso"><a href="//nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica" title="Fìsica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="භෞතික විද්?ය?ව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd"><a href="//sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%AA%D8%B3" title="?زڪس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl"><a href="//szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka" title="Fizyka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a href="//so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiisigis" title="Fiisigis – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="?یزیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn"><a href="//srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_natru" title="Sabi fu natru – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiikka" title="Fysiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysik" title="Fysik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இயற?பியல? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="భౌతిక శాస?త?రమ? – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెల?గ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="ฟิสิ?ส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="//tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a href="//tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug"><a href="//bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%84%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%80" title="ᨄᨗᨔᨗᨀ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug">ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘ?ᨗ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фізика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="طبیعیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug"><a href="//ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%89%D8%B2%D9%89%D9%83%D8%A7" title="?ىزىكا – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="//vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACxica" title="Fìxica – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BA%ADt_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Vật lý h?c – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo"><a href="//vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCs%C3%BCd" title="Füsüd – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BC%C3%BCsiga" title="Füüsiga – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizike" title="Fizike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86" title="物? – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo"><a href="//wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%ABmm" title="Jëmm – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="//wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="物?学 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">?语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7" title="פיזיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="//yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADs%C3%ADks%C3%AC" title="Físíksì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86" title="物? – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="//diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea"><a href="//zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurkunde" title="Natuurkunde – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="//bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiz%C4%97ka" title="Fizėka – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="物?学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिकशास??त?र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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