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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Philosophy</h1>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">a series</a> on</td>
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<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><strong class="selflink">Philosophy</strong></th>
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<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Philbar_3.png" class="image" title="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes"><img alt="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png" width="220" height="151" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="151" /></a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers" title="Category:Philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aestheticians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical traditions">Traditions</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Philosophy">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">Periods</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_literature" title="Category:Philosophical literature">Literature</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics_literature" title="Category:Aesthetics literature">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology_literature" title="Category:Epistemology literature">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics_literature" title="Category:Ethics literature">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic_literature" title="Category:Logic literature">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics_literature" title="Category:Metaphysics literature">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_literature" title="Category:Political philosophy literature">Political philosophy</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Legal philosophy</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy-related_lists" title="Category:Philosophy-related lists">Lists</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;">Miscellaneous</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">Philosopher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
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<p><b>Philosophy</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιλοσοφία</span>, <i>philosophia</i>, literally "love of wisdom"<sup id="cite_ref-biblehub.com_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biblehub.com-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oed.com2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed.com2-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary-4">[4]</a></sup>) is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> The term was probably coined by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> (c. 570 – c. 495 BC). Philosophical methods include questioning, <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">critical discussion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">rational argument</a> and systematic presentation.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-justification_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-justification-8">[8]</a></sup> Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">know anything</a> and to prove it?<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> What is <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">most real</a>? However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">best way to live</a>? Is it better to be <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">just or unjust</a> (if you can get away with it)?<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Do humans have <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>?<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
<p>Historically, "philosophy" encompassed any body of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-auto23_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto23-14">[14]</a></sup> From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> to the 19th century, "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>" encompassed <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg20073_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg20073-15">[15]</a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Issac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Issac Newton">Newton</a>'s 1687 <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</a></i> later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">research universities</a> led academic philosophy and other disciplines to <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">professionalize</a> and specialize.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> In the modern era, some investigations that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.</p>
<p>Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy. For example, is <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a> objective or subjective?<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Are there many <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific methods</a> or just one?<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Is political <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopia</a> a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy?<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> ("concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being"),<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> (about the "nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and validity" <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Western philosophy">history of Western philosophy</a>.</p>
<p>Since the 20th century professional <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> contribute to society primarily as <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professors</a>, researchers and writers. However, many of those who study philosophy in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the fields of law, journalism, politics, religion, science, business and various art and entertainment activities.<sup id="cite_ref-whystudyphilosophy.com_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whystudyphilosophy.com-26">[26]</a></sup></p>
<div class="toclimit-3">
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Philosophy_and_culture"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy and culture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Philosophy_and_knowledge"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy and knowledge</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Philosophical_progress"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophical progress</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Philosophical_categories"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophical categories</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Metaphysics_and_epistemology"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Metaphysics and epistemology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Metaphysics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Epistemology"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Epistemology</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Value_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Value theory</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Aesthetics"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aesthetics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Political_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Political philosophy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Logic.2C_science_and_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Logic, science and mathematics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Logic"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Logic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Philosophy_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#History_of_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">History of philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Philosophical_schools"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophical schools</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#General_history"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">General history</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Ancient_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Babylon"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Babylon</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Ancient_China"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Ancient_Indian"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Indian</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Ancient_Persian"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Persian</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#5th.E2.80.9316th_centuries"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">5th–16th centuries</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Medieval_Europe"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval Europe</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Renaissance"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#East_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">East Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#India"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">India</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Middle_East"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Middle East</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Mesoamerica"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Mesoamerica</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Africa"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Modern_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#19th-century_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">19th-century philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#20th-century_and_21st-century_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">20th-century and 21st-century philosophy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Western_history"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Western history</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Ancient_philosophy_2"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><a href="#Pre-Socratics"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-Socratics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-39"><a href="#Socratics"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Socratics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-40"><a href="#Socrates"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Socrates</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-41"><a href="#Plato"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Plato</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-42"><a href="#Aristotle"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Aristotle</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-43"><a href="#Hellenistic"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Hellenistic</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#Medieval_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Renaissance_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Modern_philosophy_2"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Modern philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-47"><a href="#17th-century"><span class="tocnumber">4.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">17th-century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-48"><a href="#18th-century"><span class="tocnumber">4.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">18th-century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-49"><a href="#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">4.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50"><a href="#Contemporary_approaches"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary approaches</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-51"><a href="#Analytic"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Analytic</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-52"><a href="#Frege"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Frege</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-53"><a href="#Logicism"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Logicism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-54"><a href="#Psychologism"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Psychologism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-55"><a href="#Language"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Language</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#Continental"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Continental</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-57"><a href="#German_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">German idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-58"><a href="#Phenomenology"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Phenomenology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-59"><a href="#Existentialism"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Existentialism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-60"><a href="#Structuralism_and_post-structuralism"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Structuralism and post-structuralism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-61"><a href="#Pragmatism"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Pragmatism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-62"><a href="#Other_approaches"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Other approaches</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-63"><a href="#Thomism"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Thomism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-64"><a href="#Applied_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Applied philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-65"><a href="#Marxism"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Marxism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-66"><a href="#Philosophy_and_society"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy and society</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-67"><a href="#Role_of_women"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Role of women</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-68"><a href="#Popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Popular culture</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-69"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-70"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-71"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-72"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-73"><a href="#General_introductions"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">General introductions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-74"><a href="#Topical_introductions"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Topical introductions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-75"><a href="#Eastern"><span class="tocnumber">10.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Eastern</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-76"><a href="#African"><span class="tocnumber">10.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">African</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-77"><a href="#Islamic"><span class="tocnumber">10.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Islamic</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-78"><a href="#Historical_introductions"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Historical introductions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-79"><a href="#Ancient"><span class="tocnumber">10.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-80"><a href="#Medieval"><span class="tocnumber">10.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-81"><a href="#Modern"><span class="tocnumber">10.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-82"><a href="#Contemporary"><span class="tocnumber">10.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-83"><a href="#Reference_works"><span class="tocnumber">10.4</span> <span class="toctext">Reference works</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-84"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Introduction">Introduction</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_and_culture">Philosophy and culture</span></h3>
<p>In one sense, philosophy is synonymous with wisdom or learning. In that sense, all cultures have a philosophical tradition.</p>
<dl>
<dt>Western philosophy</dt>
</dl>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> dates to the Greek philosophers, who were active in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> beginning in the 6th century BC. <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> distinguished himself from other "wise ones" by calling himself a mere <i>lover of wisdom</i>, suggesting that he was not wise.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-27">[27]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> used this title and insisted that he possessed no <i>wisdom</i> but was a <i>pursuer of</i> wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Socrates' student <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> is often credited as the founder of Western philosophy. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> said of Plato: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them."<sup id="cite_ref-process_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-process-29">[29]</a></sup></p>
<dl>
<dt>Eastern philosophy</dt>
</dl>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Zarathushtra.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Zarathushtra.jpg/150px-Zarathushtra.jpg" width="150" height="240" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Zarathushtra.jpg/225px-Zarathushtra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Zarathushtra.jpg/300px-Zarathushtra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1502" data-file-height="2400" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Zarathushtra.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The Iranian prophet <a href="/wiki/Zarathustra" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarathustra">Zarathustra</a> is credited as the founder of <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Eastern philosophy is a term that encompasses the many philosophical currents originating outside Europe, including <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a> and other regions. They have their own timelines, regions and philosophers. Major traditions include:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_literature#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian literature">Babylonian literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a></li>
<li>East Asian <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy#Chinese_Buddhism" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy#Chinese Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a></li>
<li>Persian <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li>Middle Eastern <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li>
<li>European <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li>Mesoamerican <a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_and_knowledge">Philosophy and knowledge</span></h3>
<p>Traditionally, the term "philosophy" referred to any body of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-auto23_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto23-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-etymonline.com_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline.com-30">[30]</a></sup> In this sense, philosophy is closely related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education and politics. Newton's 1687 "<a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</a>" is classified in the 2000s as a book of physics; he used the term "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>" because it used to encompass disciplines that later became associated with sciences such as <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg20073_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg20073-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<p>Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Natural philosophy</a> ("<i>physics")</i> was the study of the physical world (<i>physis,</i> lit: nature);</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Moral philosophy</a> ("<i>ethics"</i>) was the study of goodness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and virtue (<i>ethos,</i> lit: custom);</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysical philosophy</a> <i>("logos")</i> was the study of <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, causation, <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">forms</a> and other abstract objects ("<i>meta-physika"</i> lit: "what comes after physics").<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<p>This division is not obsolete but has changed. Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory (including aesthetics, ethics, political philosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophical_progress">Philosophical progress</span></h3>
<p>Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today. <a href="/wiki/Colin_McGinn" title="Colin McGinn">Colin McGinn</a>tand others claim that no <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_progress" title="Philosophical progress">philosophical progress</a> has occurred during that interval.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">Chalmers</a> and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> while Talbot Brewer argued that "progress" is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophical_categories">Philosophical categories</span></h2>
<p>Philosopher questions can be grouped into categories. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. The groupings also make philosophy easier for students to approach. Students can learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed with the entire set of philosophical theories.</p>
<p>Various sources present different categorical schemes. The categories adopted in this article aim for breadth and simplicity.</p>
<p>These five major branches can be separated into sub-branches and each sub-branch contains many specific fields of study.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></li>
<li>Science, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and mathematics</li>
<li>History of Western philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012-36">[36]</a></sup></li>
<li>Philosophical traditions</li>
</ul>
<p>These divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher might specialize in <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kantian</a> epistemology, or <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Platonic</a> aesthetics, or modern political philosophy.) Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other and with other inquiries such as science, religion or mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Metaphysics_and_epistemology">Metaphysics and epistemology</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
<p>Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>, wholes and their parts, events, processes and <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a> and the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a>. Metaphysics includes <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, the study of the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> in its entirety and <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, the study of <a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">being</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Epistemology">Epistemology</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div>
<p>Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme).<sup id="cite_ref-WebsterRUD_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebsterRUD-38">[38]</a></sup> Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">justified</a>? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.</p>
<p>Among the numerous topics within metaphysics and epistemology, broadly construed are:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a> explores the nature, the origins and the use of language.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a> explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. It is typified by disputes between <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>. In recent years this branch has become related to <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a> explores questions that arise in connection with religions, including the soul, the afterlife, God, religious experience, analysis of religious vocabulary and texts and the relationship of <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Philosophy of human nature</a> analyzes the unique characteristics of human beings, such as rationality, politics and culture.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a> explores the aims of philosophy, its boundaries and its methods.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Value_theory">Value theory</span></h3>
<p>Value theory (or <a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">axiology</a>) is the major branch of philosophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and justice. Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and more.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethics">Ethics</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>
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<p>Ethics, or "moral philosophy", studies and considers what is good and bad <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">conduct</a>, right and <a href="/wiki/Wrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrong">wrong</a> <a href="/wiki/Values_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (philosophy)">values</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good and evil</a>. Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>. It also includes <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-investigations</a> about whether a best way to live or related standards exists. The main branches of ethics are <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div>
<p>Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture and <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> It addresses the nature of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" title="Taste (sociology)">taste</a>, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> It is more precisely defined as the study of <a href="/wiki/Senses" class="mw-redirect" title="Senses">sensory</a> or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgments</a> of <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">sentiment</a> and taste.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> It divides into art theory, <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">film theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the <a href="/wiki/Cubist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubist">Cubist</a> aesthetic.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">philosophy of film</a> analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Hobbes_(portrait).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/220px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg" width="220" height="232" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/330px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/440px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="1169" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></div>
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<p>Political philosophy is the study of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally linked subjects, as both discuss the question of what how people should live together.</p>
<p>Other branches of value theory:</p>
<p>There are a variety of branches of value theory.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a> (often called <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and interpretation of laws.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a> analyzes the definition and content of education, as well as the goals and challenges of educators.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist philosophy</a> explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality and the body including the nature of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> itself as a social and philosophical movement.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Philosophy of sport</a> analyzes sports, games and other forms of play as sociological and uniquely human activities.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Logic.2C_science_and_mathematics">Logic, science and mathematics</span></h3>
<p>Many academic disciplines generated philosophical inquiry. The relationship between "X" and the "philosophy of X" is debated. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> argued that the philosophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, saying that "<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> is as useful to scientists as <a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">ornithology</a> is to birds." <a href="/wiki/Curtis_White" class="mw-disambig" title="Curtis White">Curtis White</a>, by contrast, argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
<p>Its topics are numbers, symbols and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the social and natural sciences.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Logic">Logic</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div>
<p>Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argument is "<i>a</i> <i>connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition</i>." The connected series of statements are "<a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a>" and the proposition is the conclusion. For example:</p>
<ol>
<li>All humans are mortal. (premise)</li>
<li>Socrates is a human. (premise)</li>
<li>Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)</li>
</ol>
<p>Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a>. Sub-fields include <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">philosophical logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">Modal logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computational_logic" title="Computational logic">computational logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">non-classical logics.</a> .</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
<p>This branch explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its sub-divisions correspond to a specific branch of science. For example, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">philosophy of biology</a> deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences. The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations and implications of mathematics.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_philosophy">History of philosophy</span></h3>
<p>Some philosophers specialize in one or more historical periods. The history of philosophy (study of a specific period, individual or school) is related to but not the same as the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a> (the theoretical aspect of history, which deals with questions such as the nature of historical evidence and the possibility of objectivity).</p>
<p>Hegel's <i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">Lectures on the Philosophy of History</a></i> influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a view called <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophical_schools">Philosophical schools</span></h3>
<p>Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical schools, such as <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analytical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical philosophy">Analytical philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian philosophy">Asian philosophy</a> or <a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="General_history">General history</span></h2>
<p><span id="History"></span></p>
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<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span"><b>This article or section may need to be cleaned up.</b> It has been merged from <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></i>.</span></td>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_progress" title="Philosophical progress">Philosophical progress</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">List of years in philosophy</a></div>
<p>The history of philosophy is the compilation and study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. In addition to recording and assessing the evolution of debate over time, issues include: How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical contexts? To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras still be understood?</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_philosophy">Ancient philosophy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> began with <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, supplanted by the spread of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> empire. Next came <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy#Ancient_Iranian_philosophy" title="Philosophy">Old Iranian philosophy</a> was supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a>. Philosophical thought arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century and concluding around the 3rd century BCE the <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a> in human thought.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt">Egypt</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_literature#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian literature">Babylonian literature: Philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian philosophy</a></div>
<p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> dates the philosophical maxims of <a href="/wiki/Ptahhotep" title="Ptahhotep">Ptahhotep</a> to as early as 2880 BCE. Durant claimed that Ptahhotep could be considered the first philosopher by virtue of producing the earliest and surviving fragments of moral philosophy, as collected in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Maxims_of_Ptahhotep" title="The Maxims of Ptahhotep">The Maxims of Ptahhotep</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-literature_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-literature-47">[47]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-grimal_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grimal-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Babylon">Babylon</span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> philosophy traces back to early <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. These thinkers discussed philosophical constructs, particularly <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyrics" title="Lyrics">lyrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverbs</a>. The concepts of the Babylonians developed beyond <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> observation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuccellati1981_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuccellati1981-49">[49]</a></sup> The Babylonian text <i>Dialog of Pessimism</i> contains similarities to the <a href="/wiki/Agnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnostic">agnostic</a> thought of the <a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">sophists</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a> doctrine of contrasts and the dialogues of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, as well as a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Maieutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Maieutics">maieutic</a> <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuccellati198143_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuccellati198143-50">[50]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Milesians_(Greek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesians (Greek)">Milesian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a> is also traditionally said to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg/220px-Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg" width="220" height="374" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg 2x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="456" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, illustrated in <i>Myths &amp; Legends of China</i>, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner.</div>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div>
<p>Philosophy had a tremendous effect on ancient <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese civilization</a> that extended throughout <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>. The tradition originated in the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring and Autumn">Spring and Autumn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> eras, during a period known as the "<a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-pe_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pe-51">[51]</a></sup> which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments.<sup id="cite_ref-pe_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pe-51">[51]</a></sup> During this era the major philosophies of China, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, arose, along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, such as <a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese Naturalism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a>. Of the many Chinese philosophical schools, only Confucianism and Taoism survived the <a href="/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin Dynasty">Qin Dynasty</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">suppression of any Chinese philosophy</a> that opposed Legalism.</p>
<p>Confucianism is <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-juergensmeyer_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-juergensmeyer-52">[52]</a></sup> claiming that humans are teachable, improvable and perfectible through individual and communal endeavour, specifically including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are <i>ren</i>, <i>yi</i> and <i>li</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1998536_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1998536-53">[53]</a></sup> <i>Ren</i> is an obligation of <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> and humanity towards other individuals within a community, <i>yi</i> is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good and <i>li</i> is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act within a community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1998536_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1998536-53">[53]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> focuses on establishing harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a>, which is the origin of and the totality of everything that exists. The word "Tao" (or "Dao", depending on the <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> scheme) is usually translated as "way", "path" or "principle". Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Jewels of the Tao</a>: <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">moderation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humility</a>, while Taoist thought generally focuses on <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos (<span lang="zh" xml:lang="zh">天人相应</span>); <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">longevity</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a>, action through inaction. Harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>, or the origin of it through the Tao, is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.</p>
<dl>
<dt>Ancient Graeco-Roman</dt>
</dl>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/220px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" width="220" height="288" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/330px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/440px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<i>left</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i>right</i>): detail from <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Raffaello_Sanzio" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffaello Sanzio">Raffaello Sanzio</a>, 1509</div>
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<p>Ancient Graeco-Roman philosophy is the period of Western philosophy, spanning the 6th century [c. 585] BC to the 6th century AD. It is usually divided into three periods: the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic period</a>, the Ancient Classical Greek period of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and the post-Aristotelian (or <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a>) period. A possible fourth period includes the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">Neoplatonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> philosophers of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. The most important of the ancient philosophers in terms of subsequent influence are Plato and Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995-54">[54]</a></sup> Roman Ancient history asserted that <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> was the first to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato and through him, all of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. Plato and Aristotle, the first <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greek</a> philosophers, referred critically to other simple "wise men", who were called "<a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophists</a>," and who were common before Pythagoras' time. This critique may imply a contemporaneous distinction between the "lovers of wisdom" (the true Philosophers) and other earlier and more common traveling teachers.</p>
<p>The main subjects of ancient philosophy are: the fundamental causes and principles of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>; reconciling the diversity and change of the natural universe with the possibility of obtaining fixed and certain knowledge about it; questions about things that cannot be perceived by the senses, such as <a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">numbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">elements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Universals">universals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gods">gods</a>. Socrates is said to have been the initiator of more focused study upon human elements, including the analysis of patterns of <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and argument and the nature of <a href="/wiki/The_good_life" title="The good life">the good life</a> and the importance of understanding and knowledge in order to pursue it; the explication of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> and its relation to various <a href="/wiki/Political_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Political systems">political systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
<p>In this period the crucial features of the Western <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical method">philosophical method</a> were established: a critical approach to established views and the appeal to reason and argumentation. This includes Socrates' <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> method of inquiry, known as the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a>. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually yield the desirred answer. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is the first step.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Indian">Ancient Indian</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:162px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Karma_AS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Karma_AS.jpg/160px-Karma_AS.jpg" width="160" height="233" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Karma_AS.jpg/240px-Karma_AS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Karma_AS.jpg/320px-Karma_AS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="600" /></a>
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In <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma</a> is <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a> and reaction: if we sow <a href="/wiki/Goodness_and_value_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodness and value theory">goodness</a>, we will reap goodness.</div>
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<p>The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: <i>Darshanas</i>), encompasses several schools that originated in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>. Their origins are intertwined. These philosophies have a common underlying theme of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a> and similarly attempt to explain the attainment of <i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></i> (liberation). They were formalized and promulgated chiefly between 1000 BC to a few centuries AD.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s philosophical tradition dates back to the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Upanisads" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanisads">Upanisads</a><sup id="cite_ref-principal_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-principal-56">[56]</a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period#The_later_Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">later Vedic period</a> (c. 1000-500 BCE). Subsequent schools (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Skt</a>: <i>Darshanas</i>) of Indian philosophy were identified as orthodox (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Skt</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Astika" class="mw-redirect" title="Astika">astika</a></i>) or non-orthodox (Skt: <i><a href="/wiki/Nastika" class="mw-redirect" title="Nastika">nastika</a></i>), depending on whether or not they regarded the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> as an infallible source of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowker21999259_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowker21999259-57">[57]</a></sup> In the history of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, following the establishment of a Vedic culture, the development of philosophical and religious thought over a period of two millennia gave rise to what came to be called the six schools of <i>astika</i>, or orthodox, Indian or Hindu philosophy. These schools are synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, which was a development of the early <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>. Schools of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> are <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisesika" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaisesika">Vaisesika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purva_mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Purva mimamsa">Purva mimamsa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>. Other classifications include <a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Saiva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a> and <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="P?ṇini">P?ṇini</a> Darśana with the other orthodox schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
<p>Jain philosophy revolves around the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">ahims?</a></i> (non-violence). The major contribution of the Jain philosophy was the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></i> (multiplicity of viewpoints). According to <a href="/wiki/Jain_epistemology" title="Jain epistemology">Jain epistemology</a>, knowledge is of five kinds – sensory knowledge, scriptural knowledge, clairvoyance, telepathy and omniscience.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> and materialist (<a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a>) philosophy rejected the idea of an eternal soul. Competition and integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 500 BC to 200 AD. Some like the <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> schools survived, while others like <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ajivika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivika">Ajivika</a> did not, becoming assimilated extinct. The <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> term for "philosopher" is <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none">d?rśanika</span></i>, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none">darśanas</span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-apte_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apte-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Persian">Ancient Persian</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a></div>
<p>Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts have <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> roots. These were considerably influenced by <a href="/wiki/Zarathustra" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarathustra">Zarathustra</a>'s teachings. Throughout Iranian history and due to political and social influences such as the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Macedonian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Persia">Arab</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Mongol invasions</a> of Persia, a wide spectrum of thought arose. These extended from Old Iranian and mainly <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>-influenced traditions to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era, such as <a href="/wiki/Manicheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheism">Manicheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a>, as well as various post-Islamic schools. <a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">transcendent theosophy</a> are two important traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackburn_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackburn-61">[61]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="5th.E2.80.9316th_centuries">5th–16th centuries</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></div>
<p>Medieval philosophy developed in Western Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages, roughly extending from the Christianization of the Roman Empire until the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-62">[62]</a></sup> Medieval philosophy began with the rediscovery and further development of classical <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a> and Hellenistic philosophy and attempted to address theological problems and to integrate the sacred doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> learning. Its history is traditionally divided into two main periods: the period in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin West">Latin West</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> until the 12th century, when the works of Aristotle and Plato were preserved and cultivated; and the "golden age"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of the 12th, 13th and 14th there, which finished recovering the ancients and significantly developed the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, logic and metaphysics.</p>
<p>The Medieval era was disparagingly treated by Renaissance <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanists</a>, who saw it as a barbaric "middle" period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture and the "rebirth" or <i>renaissance</i> of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe and possibly the richest. <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Gracia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jorge Gracia">Jorge Gracia</a> argued that "in intensity, sophistication and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGracia20081_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGracia20081-63">[63]</a></sup> Major topics included the relation of <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, the existence and unity of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, the object of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, knowledge, of universals and of individuation.</p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/200px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" width="200" height="300" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/299px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/399px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2813" data-file-height="4226" /></a>
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St. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div>
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<p>Major thinkers include Christian philosophers <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_of_Poitiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert of Poitiers">Gilbert of Poitiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>; the Jewish philosophers <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> philosophers <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Alkindus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alfarabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Algazel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Avempace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" title="Ibn Tufail">Abubacer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khald%C5%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Khaldūn">Ibn Khaldūn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> continued to flourish as late as the 17th century, via <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Suarez" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Suarez">Francisco Suarez</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John of St. Thomas</a>. Aquinas, the father of <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>, was influential in Catholic Europe; he placed a great emphasis on reason and argumentation and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. His work was a significant departure from the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">Neoplatonic</a> and Augustinian thinking that dominated early Scholasticism.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance">Renaissance</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/220px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" width="220" height="401" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/330px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/440px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2550" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></div>
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<p>The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,<sup id="cite_ref-contemporaries_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contemporaries-64">[64]</a></sup> in which the recovery of classical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology and mysticism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston195318_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston195318-65">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt19924_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt19924-66">[66]</a></sup> The study of the classics and the humanities generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-transmission_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transmission-67">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston195318_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston195318-65">[65]</a></sup> Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> in making man and his virtues the focus of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-intellectual_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intellectual-68">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-69">[69]</a></sup></p>
<p>The study of classical philosophy developed in two new ways. On the one hand, the study of Aristotle was changed through the influence of <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>. The disagreements between Averroist Aristotelians and more orthodox Catholic Aristotelians such as <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> eventually contributed to the development of a "humanist Aristotelianism" developed in the Renaissance, as exemplified in the thought of <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Zabarella" class="mw-redirect" title="Giacomo Zabarella">Giacomo Zabarella</a>. Secondly, as an alternative to Aristotle, the study of Plato and the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonists">Neoplatonists</a> became common. This was assisted by the rediscovery of works that were not well known in Western Europe. Notable Renaissance Platonists include <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-69">[69]</a></sup></p>
<p>The Renaissance also renewed interest in anti-Aristotelian theories of nature considered as an organic, living whole comprehensible independently of theology, as in the work of <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Copernicus">Nicholas Copernicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telesius" class="mw-redirect" title="Telesius">Telesius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992285.E2.80.93328_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992285.E2.80.93328-70">[70]</a></sup> Such movements in natural philosophy dovetailed with a revival of interest in <a href="/wiki/Occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Occultism">occultism</a>, magic, <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">hermeticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, which were thought to yield hidden ways of knowing and mastering nature (e.g., Ficino and Mirandola).<sup id="cite_ref-philosophicae_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophicae-71">[71]</a></sup> These new movements in philosophy developed contemporaneously with larger religious and political transformations in Europe: the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> and the decline of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>. Though the theologians of the Protestant Reformation showed little direct interest in philosophy, their destruction of the traditional foundations of theological and intellectual authority harmonized with a revival of <a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">fideism</a> and skepticism in thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montaigne" class="mw-redirect" title="Montaigne">Montaigne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-scepticism_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scepticism-72">[72]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston1953228.E2.80.93229_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston1953228.E2.80.93229-73">[73]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3_p._8_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3_p._8-74">[74]</a></sup> Meanwhile, the gradual centralization of political power in nation-states was echoed by the emergence of secular political philosophies, as in the works of <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> (described as the first modern political thinker),<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-75">[75]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>, Erasmus, <a href="/wiki/Justus_Lipsius" title="Justus Lipsius">Justus Lipsius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Jean Bodin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992274.E2.80.93284_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992274.E2.80.93284-76">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmittSkinner1988430.E2.80.93452_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmittSkinner1988430.E2.80.93452-77">[77]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="East_Asia">East Asia</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Mid-Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Imperial China">Mid-Imperial Chinese</a> philosophy is primarily defined by the development of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Dynasty">Tang Dynasty</a>, Buddhism from <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a> spread throughout China. (Philosophy and religion were clearly separate in the West, but were more continuous in the East due to, for example, Buddhism's philosophical concepts.)</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> is a philosophical movement that advocated a more rationalist and secular form of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> by rejecting superstitious and mystical elements of <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> that had influenced Confucianism during and after the Han Dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Japanese_Philosophy_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Japanese_Philosophy-78">[78]</a></sup> Although the Neo-Confucianists were critical of Daoism and Buddhism,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang19995_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang19995-79">[79]</a></sup> the two did have an influence on the philosophy and the Neo-Confucianists borrowed terms and concepts from both. However, unlike the Buddhists and Daoists, who saw <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> as a catalyst for spiritual development, religious enlightenment and immortality, the Neo-Confucianists used metaphysics as a guide for developing a rationalist <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan1963460_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1963460-80">[80]</a></sup> Neo-Confucianism had its origins in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Dynasty">Tang Dynasty</a>; the Confucianist scholars <a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li_Ao" title="Li Ao">Li Ao</a> were the forbears of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang19995_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang19995-79">[79]</a></sup> The Song Dynasty philosopher <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a> is seen as the first true "pioneer" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan1963460_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1963460-80">[80]</a></sup> Elsewhere in East Asia, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Philosophy">Japanese Philosophy</a> began to develop as indigenous <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism and other schools of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>. As in Japan, <a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a> integrated the emotional content of <a href="/wiki/Korean_Shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Shamanism">Shamanism</a> into Neo-Confucianism. <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese philosophy</a> also became influenced heavily by Confucianism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="India">India</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a></div>
<p>The period between 5th and 9th centuries CE was the most prominent epoch in the development of Indian philosophy as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies both flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-banarsidass_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-banarsidass-81">[81]</a></sup> The non-dualistic <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> emerged as the most influential<sup id="cite_ref-google_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google-82">[82]</a></sup> and most dominant school.<sup id="cite_ref-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism-83">[83]</a></sup> The major philosophers of this school were <a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a>. Advaita Vedanta rejected theism and dualism by insisting that "<a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> [ultimate reality] is without parts or attributes...one without a second." Since Brahman has no properties, contains no internal diversity and is identical with the whole reality, it cannot be understood as God.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford7_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford7-84">[84]</a></sup> (Indescribable) Brahman is best described as Satchidananda (merging "Sat" + "Chit" + "Ananda", i.e., existence, consciousness and bliss). Advaita ushered in new schools of thought in the medieval period, including <a href="/wiki/Visishtadvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Visishtadvaita">Visishtadvaita</a> (qualified monism), <a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> (dualism), <a href="/wiki/Dvaitadvaita" title="Dvaitadvaita">Dvaitadvaita</a> (dualism-nondualism), <a href="/wiki/Suddhadvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Suddhadvaita">Suddhadvaita</a> (pure non-dualism), <a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a> (the recognitive school).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Middle_East">Middle East</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div>
<p>Early Islamic thought refers to philosophy during the "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>", traditionally dated between the 8th and 12th centuries. One main school was <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>, which mainly dealt with <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Islamic theological</a> questions such as the <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a>. The other school was <a href="/wiki/Philosophy#Falsafa" title="Philosophy">Falsafa</a>, which was founded on interpretations of Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. Later philosopher-theologians attempted to harmonize the two, notably by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who founded <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a>, Ibn Rushd (Averroës) who founded <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a> and others such as <a href="/wiki/Alhacen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhacen">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayh?n al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayh?n al-Bīrūnī</a>. Avicenna developedhis "Floating Man" thought experiment concerning <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">Self-awareness</a>, in which a man isolated from sense experience (e.g., blindfolded and free falling) would still be aware of his existence.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> In epistemology, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> wrote the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a>.</i> In response <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> wrote the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></i>. Both concerned <a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">autodidacticism</a> as illuminated through the life of a <a href="/wiki/Feral_child" title="Feral child">feral child</a> <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneously generated</a> in a cave on a <a href="/wiki/Desert_island" title="Desert island">desert island</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Aztec" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a> had a well-developed <a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">school of philosophy</a>, perhaps the most developed in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> amassing even more texts than the ancient Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann1491_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann1491-86">[86]</a></sup> Aztec philosophy considered <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>. Aztec philosophers attempted to answer the main Aztec philosophical question of how to gain stability and balance in an <a href="/wiki/Ephemeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephemeral">ephemeral</a> world. <i><a href="/wiki/Ometeotl" title="Ometeotl">Ometeotl</a></i> was the unity that underlies the universe. Ometeotl forms, shapes and is, all things. Even things in opposition—light and dark, life and death—were seen as expressions of the same unity, Ometeotl, comprising a unity with dualistic expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-iepMaffie_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iepMaffie-87">[87]</a></sup> Aztec priests were <a href="/wiki/Panentheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Panentheistic">panentheists</a>, while the popular <a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec religion</a> maintained <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>. Priests saw the different gods as aspects of the singular and transcendent unity of teotl, but the masses were allowed to practice polytheism without understanding the true, unified nature of the Aztec gods.<sup id="cite_ref-iepMaffie_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iepMaffie-87">[87]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Africa">Africa</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian philosophy</a> is the philosophical tradition of present-day <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. It was preserved via an oral tradition and in written form through <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> manuscripts. This philosophy occupies a unique position within <a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a>. It arises from the confluence of <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patristic" class="mw-redirect" title="Patristic">Patristic</a> philosophy with traditional Ethiopian modes of thought. Ethiopian thinkers were also influenced by Arabic thought. The literature developed under these circumstances is the result of a twofold effort of creative assimilation. <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodox Christianity</a> combined with Greek pagan and early Patristic thought into an Ethiopian-Christian synthesis. The moral reflection of religious inspiration was prevalent and the use of narrative, <a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">parable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apothegm" class="mw-redirect" title="Apothegm">apothegm</a> and rich imagery outweighed the use of abstract argument. This literature includes adaptations of Greek texts, including the <i>Physiolog</i> (cca. 5th century A.D.), <i>The Life and Maxims of Skendes</i> (11th century A.D.) and <i>The Book of the Wise Philosophers</i> (1510/22). In the 17th century, Ethiopians' religious beliefs were challenged by King <a href="/wiki/Susenyos_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Susenyos of Ethiopia">Suseynos</a>' adoption of Catholicism and by the subsequent presence of Jesuit missionaries. The attempt to forcefully impose religion inspired further development of Ethiopian philosophy during the 17th century. <a href="/wiki/Zera_Yacob" class="mw-redirect" title="Zera Yacob">Zera Yacob</a> (1599–1692) was the most important exponent. His treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Hatata" title="Hatata">Hatata</a></i> (1667) is often included in the canon of universal philosophy.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/220px-JohnLocke.png" width="220" height="284" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/330px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/440px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="792" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></div>
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<p>The early modern era of Western philosophy occupied the 17th and 18th centuries.The 18th century is often referred to as the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>&#160;became celebrated as the primary source of&#160;<a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>&#160;and&#160;<a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimacy</a>, along with the ideals of <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>,&#160;equality,&#160;<a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a>,&#160;<a href="/wiki/Fraternity" title="Fraternity">fraternity</a>,&#160;<a href="/wiki/Constitutional_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional government">constitutional government</a>&#160;and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">limits on the power of the church over the state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophers_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophers-88">[88]</a></sup> Modern philosophy separated from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia and Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20081.E2.80.932_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20081.E2.80.932-89">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xii_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xii-90">[90]</a></sup> One new focus was on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building.<sup id="cite_ref-rutherford_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rutherford-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._211_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._211-92">[92]</a></sup> Experimentation and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> became the center of natural philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._179.E2.80.93180_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._179.E2.80.93180-93">[93]</a></sup> Other central topics in this period include the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the natural sciences for traditional theological topics such as free will and God and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._212.E2.80.93331_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._212.E2.80.93331-94">[94]</a></sup> These trends first coalesce in <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>'s call for a new, empirical program for expanding knowledge and found influential form in the mechanical physics and rationalist metaphysics of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20082.E2.80.933_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20082.E2.80.933-95">[95]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> was the first to apply this methodology systematically to <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> and is the originator of modern political philosophy, including the modern theory of a "<a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>" among citizens and governments.<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11-96">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-97">[97]</a></sup> The canon of early modern philosophy generally includes Descartes, <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutherford20061_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutherford20061-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20082_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20082-99">[99]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophical13_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical13-100">[100]</a></sup> Other thinkers include <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Gassendi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_d%27Alembert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a> was a seminal figure in initiating reaction against the Enlightenment. The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>'s systematic attempt to limit metaphysics, justify scientific knowledge and reconcile both of these with morality and freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-rutherford_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rutherford-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xiii_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xiii-101">[101]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20083_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20083-102">[102]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="19th-century_philosophy">19th-century philosophy</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:162px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nietzsche187a.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/160px-Nietzsche187a.jpg" width="160" height="217" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/240px-Nietzsche187a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/320px-Nietzsche187a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="1986" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></div>
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<p>Later modern philosophy began with the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Shand_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shand-103">[103]</a></sup> German philosophers exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German university system.<sup id="cite_ref-universities_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-universities-104">[104]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/German_idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="German idealist">German idealists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a>, transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process and as such is entirely knowable.<sup id="cite_ref-frederick_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frederick-105">[105]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>'s identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational <a href="/wiki/Will_to_live" title="Will to live">will to live</a> influenced later thinking, such including <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>. After Hegel's death in 1831, 19th-century philosophy largely turned against idealism in favor of varieties of philosophical <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> (<a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>), <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a> (empiricism) and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> (materialism). Logic made significant advances, as increasing mathematical understanding opened fields of inference to formalization in the work of <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">Boole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-transformation_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transformation-106">[106]</a></sup> Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a> (ethics), <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>) and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a> (<a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="20th-century_and_21st-century_philosophy">20th-century and 21st-century philosophy</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg/220px-Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg" width="220" height="326" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg/330px-Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg/440px-Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1859" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></div>
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<p>In the twentieth century, philosophy became a professional discipline practiced within universities. It became less general and more specialized. In the view of one prominent recent historian: "Philosophy has become a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled and the subfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields."<sup id="cite_ref-philosophical16_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophical16-107">[107]</a></sup> Briggle and Frodeman argued that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-BriggleFrodeman2016_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BriggleFrodeman2016-108">[108]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the English-speaking world, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> dominated much of the 20th century. In the first half of the century, it was a cohesive school, shaped strongly by <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a> was a model for its early development, moving from a rejection of the idealism dominant in late 19th-century British philosophy to a neo-Humean empiricism, strengthened by the conceptual resources of modern mathematical logic.<sup id="cite_ref-stanfordBR_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanfordBR-109">[109]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards.5B.2F.2Fbooks.google.com.2Fbooks.3Fid.3DUxErAAAAMAAJ_volume_7_239.5D_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards.5B.2F.2Fbooks.google.com.2Fbooks.3Fid.3DUxErAAAAMAAJ_volume_7_239.5D-110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-philosophers18_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophers18-111">[111]</a></sup> In the latter half of the 20th century, analytic philosophy diffused into a wide variety of disparate views.</p>
<p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War 2</a> the analytic program developed an interest in ordinary language as a way of avoiding or redescribing traditional philosophical problems and to a <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">naturalism</a> that sought to dissolve philosophical puzzles via progress in the natural sciences (such as cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology). <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>'s attack on traditional philosophy as a linguistic misunderstanding of normal forms of life, was the most influential.<sup id="cite_ref-wittgenstein_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wittgenstein-112">[112]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-utm_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utm-113">[113]</a></sup> The later work of Russell and of <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a> are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach.<sup id="cite_ref-contemporary_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contemporary-114">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia19_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia19-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uncontroversially_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uncontroversially-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wittgenstein20_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wittgenstein20-117">[117]</a></sup> The diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his followers led to a "new metaphysics" of <a href="/wiki/Possible_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible worlds">possible worlds</a>, as in the work of <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">Lewis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford21_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford21-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-introduction_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introduction-119">[119]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">experimental philosophy</a> movement sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research techniques.</p>
<p>In continental Europe, no school dominated. Fleeing fascism and communism, the logical positivists left central Europe, diminishing philosophical interest in natural science. Instead an emphasis on the humanities, broadly construed, figured prominently in <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>. 20th-century movements such as <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">poststructuralism</a> are included within this loose category. Phenomenology founder <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a> sought to study consciousness as experienced from a first-person perspective,<sup id="cite_ref-stanford22_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford22-120">[120]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-utm23_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utm23-121">[121]</a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a> drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche and Husserl to propose an <a href="/wiki/Existential" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential">existential</a> approach to <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-influential_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-influential-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-utm24_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utm24-123">[123]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic-speaking</a> world, <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> philosophy such as <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a> dominated, involving philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Aflaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Western_history">Western history</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">"History of Western Philosophy" redirects here. For the book by Bertrand Russell, see <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a>.</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a> termed the intense period of philosophical development from the 7th-3rd century BCE an <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a> in human thought. Western philosophy arose contemporaneously with science, mathematics, mythology, art, religion and political society.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> is conventionally divided into four eras – Ancient, Medieval, Modern and Contemporary. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late 15th century and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. The "Modern" period then began and continued to the end of the 19th century, when contemporary philosophy began.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_philosophy_2">Ancient philosophy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></div>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Pre-Socratics">Pre-Socratics</span></h4>
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<a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, source of early Greek philosophy, in western <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a></div>
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<p>Western Philosophy began in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with <a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a> of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, who was active around 585 B.C. and crafted the opaque dictum, "all is water." His most noted students were respectively <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> (all is <a href="/wiki/Apeiron_(cosmology)" title="Apeiron (cosmology)">apeiron</a> (roughly, <i>the unlimited</i>)) and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes of Miletus</a> ("all is air").</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, later lived at Croton in southern Italy (Magna Graecia). <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> hold that "all is number," giving <i>formal</i> accounts in contrast to the previous <i>material</i> of the Ionians. They also believe in <a href="/wiki/Metempsychosis" title="Metempsychosis">metempsychosis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Metempsychosis" title="Metempsychosis">transmigration of souls</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a>).</p>
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<a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_Paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeno's Paradox">Zeno's Paradox</a>, <i>Achilles and the Tortoise</i></div>
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<p>The first true philosophic dialectic occurs between the "<a href="/wiki/Becoming_(philosophy)" title="Becoming (philosophy)">becoming</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a> ("all is fire", "everything flows," all is chaotic and transitory") and the "<a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">being</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eleatic_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleatic School">Elea</a> (all is One, change is impossible). His student <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a> argued against motion with <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">his famous paradoxes</a>. Heraclitus also introduced the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>.</p>
<p>In response to Parmenides on the impossibility of change, <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">used pluralism</a> to describe the world as a mixture of primary imperishable ingredients, where material variation was reflected the relative preponderance of one ingredient over other ingredients.<sup id="cite_ref-Curd_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curd-124">[124]</a></sup> He introduced the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">Nous</a></i> (Mind) as an ordering force, which moved and separated out the original mixture, which was <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneous">homogeneous</a>, or nearly so.</p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Four_elements_representation.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Four_elements_representation.svg/150px-Four_elements_representation.svg.png" width="150" height="125" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Four_elements_representation.svg/225px-Four_elements_representation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Four_elements_representation.svg/300px-Four_elements_representation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="278" /></a>
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The Four Elements</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> proposed powers called Love and Hate that would act as forces to bring about the mixture and separation of the elements, more discrete than in the mixture of Anaxagoras. Empedocles is best known as the originator of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogenic</a> theory of the four <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">classical elements</a>, earth, air, wind and fire. Empedocles is the last Greek philosopher to record his ideas in verse. More of his work survives than of any other Presocratic philosopher.</p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cornelis_Cornelisz._van_Haarlem_01.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cornelis_Cornelisz._van_Haarlem_01.jpg/220px-Cornelis_Cornelisz._van_Haarlem_01.jpg" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cornelis_Cornelisz._van_Haarlem_01.jpg/330px-Cornelis_Cornelisz._van_Haarlem_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Cornelis_Cornelisz._van_Haarlem_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="275" /></a>
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Democritus (laughing) &amp; Herakleitos (crying) by <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_van_Haarlem" title="Cornelis van Haarlem">van Haarlem</a></div>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Sophistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophistry">Sophists</a> became known for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished. Most famous them of was <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a> who stated, "man is the measure of all things".</p>
<p>Another school was the <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, wherein the world is a composite of innumerable interacting parts.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Socratics">Socratics</span></h4>
<p>Philosophical inquiry gradually became more concentrated in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athens</a>, which had become the dominant city-state in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. Orators influenced Athenian history (possibly even causing its <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">failure</a>). The city used slave labor to farm and perform other tasks, freeing the citizens to engage in inquiry and other pastimes. Skillful oratory was necessary to influence the democratic Athenian Assembly and thereby gain respect and wealth. Many sophists maintained schools of debate, with paying students, leading to increasingly refined methods of debate.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Socrates">Socrates</span></h5>
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Bust of Socrates</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> was the key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project. He studied under the Sophists. Following a visit to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Delphi" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle of Delphi">Oracle of Delphi</a> he began questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, attempting to disprove the oracular prophecy that no man would be wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty, truth and the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage and justice. Socrates' awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover errors in his own thinking as well as in others. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>). His influence led to his <a href="/wiki/Socrates#Trial_and_death" title="Socrates">trial and execution</a> in 399 B.C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">piety</a> and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his principles and drink a poisonous tea made of <a href="/wiki/Conium" title="Conium">hemlock</a>.</p>
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Plato's <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_Cave" title="Allegory of the Cave">Allegory of the Cave</a> suggests that what we observe is no closer to reality than shadows on a cave wall are to the objects they reflect.</div>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Plato">Plato</span></h5>
<p>Socrates' most important student was Plato, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">Academy</a> of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues that applied the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, although Plato had already begun putting his own thoughts into Socrates' mouth.</p>
<p>His <a href="/wiki/The_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="The Forms">theory of forms</a> holds that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher-order preeminent world. These concepts are more real, permanent and universal than the things we observe directly, which are changing and temporal.</p>
<p>He argued that the immortal soul is superior to the body; that <a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">evil</a> was simple ignorance of truth; that true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art, including music, should be subordinate to moral purpose.</p>
<p>He argued that the society of the <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> should be governed by a meritorious class of property-less <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">philosopher kings</a>. These philosopher kings would have no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children and be protected by an athletically gifted, honorable, duty-bound military class. In his most famous work, <i><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Republic">The Republic</a></i>, Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny and proposes a three-tiered merit-based structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers in an equal relationship. There no innocents would ever be put to death, citing the philosophers' relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their suitability as governors.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Aristotle">Aristotle</span></h5>
<p>Plato's outstanding student was <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, perhaps the first systematic philosopher. <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a> was the first type of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> to attempt to categorize every valid <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be <a href="/wiki/Validity" title="Validity">valid</a>. A crucial assumption in <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a> is that its subjects are real objects. Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, "All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C." This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are real members of set B. In Aristotle's syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic applied only to things that exist ("no empty classes").</p>
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Plato <i>(left)</i> and Aristotle</div>
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<p>The application of Aristotelian logic is preceded by having the student memorize syllogisms. Each syllogism had a name, for example: <i><a href="/wiki/Modus_ponens" title="Modus ponens">modus ponens</a></i> had the form of "If A is true, then B is true. A is true, therefore B is true." Memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the student of the names of the syllogisms. Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle's 19 syllogisms that concerned two subjects, permitting them to validly connect a subject and object. A few logicians developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of elaborating the rules of three subjects.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</span></h5>
<p>Other pupils of Socrates aside from Plato founded schools, such as <a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a>. The Hellenistic period included the <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a> resolving themselves in the <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> schools. Skepticism also originated in this period.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_philosophy">Medieval philosophy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></div>
<p>The history of western medieval philosophy is generally divided into the early medieval period (mid-4th to 13th centuries) and the high medieval period. The early period started with <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a>. The latter period began when a great bulk of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s works that had been lost in the West were discovered and translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek. It lasted one century and a half compared to the nine centuries of the early period. It ended around the time of <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> in the middle of the 14th century.</p>
<p>Medieval philosophy was primarily concerned with reconciling the Christian faith with philosophical reason, thereby "baptizing" it. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Platonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Platonism">neo-Platonism</a>, but, above all, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>nic reasoning.</p>
<p>The dominant figure of this period was St. Augustine, who adopted and Christianized Plato's thought. His influence was diminished with the rediscovery of Aristotle's texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers (including <a href="/wiki/St._Anselm_of_Canterbury" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Anselm of Canterbury">St. Anselm of Canterbury</a>) until that discovery. Towards the end of the early period and throughout the high period, the <a href="/wiki/Nature_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature of God">nature of God</a> and the application of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s concept of <a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">logic</a> and thought to every area of life were prime concerns. Attempts were made to reconcile them by means of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. One continuing interest was to prove the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>, through logic alone, if possible. The point of this exercise was not to justify belief in God, deemed self-evident, but to elevate classical philosophy, with its <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> origins, to a respectable position in a Christian context.</p>
<p>One monumental effort to overcome mere logical argument was to follow Aristotelian demonstration by starting from effects and reasoning up to their causes. This took the form of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological argument</a>, conventionally attributed to <a href="/wiki/St._Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Thomas Aquinas">St. Thomas Aquinas</a>. The argument roughly is that every phenomenon has a cause and that each cause in turn must be caused by something else. But since the chain of causes cannot stretch infinitely into the past, there must have been an uncaused "first cause" that was posited to be God. Aquinas adapted this argument to prove the goodness of God. Everything has some goodness and each cause is better than the thing it causes. Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing. Similar arguments were used to prove God's power and uniqueness.</p>
<p>Another important argument for the existence of God was the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>, advanced by <a href="/wiki/St._Anselm" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Anselm">St. Anselm</a>. Basically, it claimed that God is that than which nothing greater can be thought. Nothing that exists only in the mind can be said to be greater than something that exists outside the mind. Hence the greatest thing that the mind can conceive of must exist in reality. Therefore, God exists. This argument was used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward. Other important thinkers from the medieval period include <a href="/wiki/Blessed_John_Duns_Scotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Blessed John Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anicius_Manlius_Severinus_Bo%C3%ABthius" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius">Boëthius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Ab%C3%A9lard" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Abélard">Abélard</a>.</p>
<p>In medieval times, any research other than <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> was called "philosophy", hence the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a> is a scientific journal dating from 1665, the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (Ph.D.) degree covers a wide range of subjects from the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> to the sciences and the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society" title="Cambridge Philosophical Society">Cambridge Philosophical Society</a>, which is actually concerned with what would now be called <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and not modern philosophy.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance_philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</span></h3>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div>
<p>Contemporary philosophical <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> emphasizes a gap between Medieval and modern thought. This "gap" defines the "modern" in "modern philosophy". In Western history, if Columbus' 1492 voyages symbolically ended the Middle Ages. This boundary does not fit the evolution of philosophy well. Between High Scholasticism (13th and part of the 14th centuries) and the empiricist-rationalist disputes characterizing modern philosophy (17th century onward) transitional systems emerged. One focus was on emancipating the humanities, including aesthetics, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and the beginning of natural observations from <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>. Philosophy had its own rebirth during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.</p>
<p>Two circumstancial events helped liberate philosophy: the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> and the adoption of vernacular languages instead of Latin in treatises and public discussions.</p>
<p>Most medieval philosophers were priests and monks, while Renaissance philosophers were more heterogeneous, including rhetoricians, magicians and astrologues, early empirical scientists, poets and philologists. One common theme among Renaissance thinkers was a concern for humanity (and the humanities) and the search for human uniqueness. The study of <i>humanae litterae</i> (human writings) overcame that of <i>divinae litterae</i> (divine writings) and opened the way for modern skepticism and science.</p>
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Santi di Tito – <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>'s portrait</div>
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<p>Renaissance philosophers diversified the approaches and topics of their predecessors. Those oriented towards empiricism and rationalism, such as <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>, qualify as modern philosophers. By contrast, those influenced by esoteric traditions (<a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Mirandola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Ficino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Bruno</a>) are better described as Medieval philosophers. Thinkers who do not clearly fall into either category and epitomize Renaissance philosophy, including <a href="/wiki/Montaigne" class="mw-redirect" title="Montaigne">Montaigne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telesius" class="mw-redirect" title="Telesius">Telesius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_philosophy_2">Modern philosophy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:142px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/140px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" width="140" height="171" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/210px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/279px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></div>
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<p>The term "modern philosophy" has many definitions. One common usage is to date modern philosophy to the "<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Reason">Age of Reason</a>", where systematic philosophy became common, marking <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Hobbes</a> (writing in the 17th century) as the first modern philosopher. The grounding of philosophy in problems of knowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics, dominates the era, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diane_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diane-125">[125]</a></sup></p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/150px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" width="150" height="216" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/225px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/300px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></div>
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<p>Another definition starts from the Renaissance. Also, philosophy has its own "<a href="/wiki/Lumpers/splitters" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumpers/splitters">lumpers/splitters</a>" debate, namely that some historians split history into more periods than others e.g., by attaching "early" and "late" to larger eras. The following considers modern philosophy century by century.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="17th-century">17th-century</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg/220px-Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg" width="220" height="271" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg/330px-Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg/440px-Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="567" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a> organized philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of Descartes, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a> and Hobbes. This approach attempted to integrate religious belief into philosophical frameworks. It rejected <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> or other skeptical beliefs, by adopting the idea of material reality and <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a> between spirit and material. The monism of <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Idealism#George_Berkeley" title="Idealism">idealism</a>) contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Benedict_de_Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedict de Spinoza">Spinoza</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-aspect_theory" title="Double-aspect theory">dual aspect theory</a>). During this century empiricism was developed as an alternative to skepticism by Locke, Berkeley and others. Also, Locke and Hobbes developed their political philosophies during this time.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="18th-century">18th-century</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th-century philosophy</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th-century philosophy</a> centers on the rise of systematic <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, following <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s natural philosophy. If offered thinkers including <a href="/wiki/Diderot" class="mw-redirect" title="Diderot">Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, Rousseau and Montesquieu and political philosophies who influenced the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a>. Kant sought a systematic reconciliation of rationalism and empiricism with his claim that the mind structured experience.</p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_(c._1797).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/170px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg" width="170" height="207" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/255px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/340px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="1244" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></div>
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<p>Other major figures included Hume and Smith, who joined <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a> as the primary philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>. The <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a> was defined by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a>. Burke was influenced by Hume's skepticism and reliance on tradition and the passions. While supporting the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> based on the established <a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Englishmen" title="Rights of Englishmen">rights of Englishmen</a>, he rejected both the Enlightenment's "<a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a>" claims and the rationalism of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> was an advocate of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> best known for <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</a></i> (1792).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:142px;"><a href="/wiki/File:G.W.F._Hegel_(by_Sichling,_after_Sebbers).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/140px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg" width="140" height="160" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/209px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/279px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="573" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a></div>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th century</a> took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> and Kantian metaphysics and proceeded to a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>, whose <i>Logic</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> produced a "<a href="/wiki/Dialectics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectics">dialectical</a>" framework for ordering of knowledge. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a> affirmed the "<a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a>", and drew parallels to Eastern philosophy, influencing <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a> took philosophy in a new direction by focusing less on abstract concepts and more on the notion of an existing individual. His work provided impetus for 20th century philosophical movements, including <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>. Developments in science arose from and then challenged philosophy: most importantly <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a>, which adapted the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_approaches">Contemporary approaches</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary philosophy</a></div>
<p>The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. The <a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" title="20th-century philosophy">20th century</a> experienced upheavals produced by a series of conflicts over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. Multiple thinkers attempted to reform and preserve/alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, contemporary philosophy mostly settled into <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental</a> traditions; the former carried in the English speaking world and the latter on the continent of Europe. The perceived conflict between these schools remains prominent. Knowledge and its basis has been a central concern, as in Russell, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a>.</p>
<p>The philosophy of the 21st century is difficult to characterize due to its youth. Surviving 20th century philosophers who have (re)established themselves in the 21st include <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a>. New topics have occupied analytic philosophy, providing much of contemporary discourse in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>. New inquiries consider the ethical implications of <a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">new media</a> and information exchange. Such developments rekindled interest in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">philosophy of technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a>. Enthusiasm increased for specialized areas in philosophy of science, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytic">Analytic</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottlob_Frege_(Emil_Tesch).png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/220px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png" width="220" height="173" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/330px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/440px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="880" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></div>
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<p>Analytic philosophy comprises philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, use of classical and non-classical logics and clarity of meaning. One dispute is over whether philosophical problems arise through misuse of language/misunderstandings of its logic or through philosophical problems. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup> makes the case that <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Arithmetic" title="The Foundations of Arithmetic">The Foundations of Arithmetic</a></i> is the first analytic work, on the grounds that Frege took the "linguistic turn", analyzing philosophical problems through language. <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a> and <a href="/wiki/G.E._Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="G.E. Moore">Moore</a> are often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, based on their rejection of British idealism, their defense of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> and the emphasis they laid on the legitimacy of analysis.</p>
<p>Russell's classic works <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-russell_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russell-128">[128]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a>, promoted the use of mathematical logic in philosophy. They set the research program in the early stages of the analytic tradition. They emphasized problems such as the reference of proper names, whether 'existence' is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, the discussions on the foundations of mathematics; and explored issues of ontological commitment and metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind and persistence and change. Russell and Moore's philosophy developed as a critique of <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> and his British followers in particular and of grand systems of <a href="/wiki/Speculative_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative philosophy">speculative philosophy</a> in general. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a> is one analytic philosopher who rejects neither Hegel nor speculative philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language</a> were both influenced by Russell and Wittgenstein's development of <a href="/wiki/Logical_Atomism" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical Atomism">logical atomism</a>, the former positively and the latter negatively.</p>
<p>In 1921, Wittgenstein published his <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he found most of the problems of philosophy to be mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by investigating and then observing language's logical structure. Later, he reversed some positions he set out in <i>Tractatus</i>, for example in his second major work, <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> (1953). <i>Investigations</i> was influential in the development of "ordinary language philosophy," which was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a>, <a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">Austin</a> and others.</p>
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<a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></div>
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<p>Quine had a major influence in the US, with <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i>. Quine criticized the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of "analyticity" was unattainable. He argued for <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a>, the thesis that language, including scientific language, is a set of interconnected sentences, none of which can be verified on its own. Instead he argued that sentences depend on each other for their meaning and truth conditions. A consequence of this approach is that language as a whole has only a thin relation to experience. Some sentences that refer directly to experience might be modified by sense impressions, but as language is theoretical, for the whole language to be modified, more than this is required. However, most of the linguistic structure can in principle be revised, even logic, in order to better model the world. Notable students of Quine include <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett</a>. The former devised a program for giving a semantics to <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> and thereby answer the philosophical conundrum "what is meaning?". A crucial part of the program was the use of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Tarski</a>'s semantic theory of truth. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a>, among others, argued that truth conditions should be dispensed with in the theory of meaning and replaced by "assertability conditions". Some propositions, on this view, are neither true nor false and thus such a theory of meaning entails a rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_excluded_middle" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the excluded middle">law of the excluded middle</a>. This, for Dummett, entails antirealism, as Russell himself pointed out in <i>An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth</i>.</p>
<p>By the 1970s renewed interest in many traditional philosophical problems was evident in the younger of analytic philosophers. <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">Lewis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a> studied traditional metaphysical problems, which they began exploring with logic and the philosophy of language. Among those problems were: free will, <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>, the nature of personal identity, identity over time, the mind, causal laws, space-time, the properties of material beings and <a href="/wiki/Modality" class="mw-disambig" title="Modality">modality</a>. Analytic philosophers continued to consider these questions in the 2010s. They are also interested in the methodology of analytic philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Williamson</a> wrote <i>The Philosophy of Philosophy</i> on that topic. Influential figures include <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">Lewis</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a>, Dummett, <a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Inwagen</a>, Kripke and <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>. Analytic philosophy has been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State and Utopia</a></i>, analytic political philosophy gained respect. Analytic philosophers also considered aesthetics, led by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Dandanto</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Frege">Frege</span></h4>
<p>Frege grounded of philosophy in logic rather than knowledge, a radical change from philosophy since Descartes.<sup id="cite_ref-diane_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diane-125">[125]</a></sup> Frege helped <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">Boole</a> and others overturn Aristotle's logic, which had held sway for millennia. He developed <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a>, which allowed a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into logical form than was possible using the ancient Aristotelian logic.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Logicism">Logicism</span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:145px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Russell_in_1938.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell_in_1938.jpg/143px-Russell_in_1938.jpg" width="143" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell_in_1938.jpg/215px-Russell_in_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell_in_1938.jpg/286px-Russell_in_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="892" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></div>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Logicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Logicist">logicist</a> project to ground mathematics in logic dominated the era, although it received a serious setback from <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_Paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell's Paradox">Russell's Paradox</a> and was defeated utterly by <a href="/wiki/Godel" class="mw-redirect" title="Godel">Godel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Godel%27s_Incompleteness_Theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Godel's Incompleteness Theorem">Incompleteness Theorem</a>. During his early career, he was much influenced by Like Frege. Russell along with collaborator <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a>, attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i> (1903). Later, his book, also written with Whitehead, <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1910–13), encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>. Additionally, Russell adopted Frege's <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a> as his primary philosophical method, thinking that could expose the underlying structure of philosophical problems, most famously in his analysis of <a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">definite descriptions</a> in "On Denoting".<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup></p>
<p>An important aspect of British idealism was <a href="/wiki/Logical_holism" title="Logical holism">logical holism</a>—the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be known wholly without also knowing the whole world. Inspired by developments of modern logic, Russell's early work claimed that the problems of philosophy could be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions.<sup id="cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PenguinDicP22-130">[130]</a></sup> This is closely related to the opinion that <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)#Relations" title="Property (philosophy)">relations</a> between items are actually <i>internal relations</i>, that is, <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a> and the doctrine of <i>external relations</i>— the belief that the world consists of <i>independent</i> facts.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Psychologism">Psychologism</span></h4>
<p>A basic principle of analytic philosophy is conceptual clarity,<sup id="cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PenguinDicP22-130">[130]</a></sup> in the name of which Moore and Russell rejected <a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a>, which they accused of obscurity.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></p>
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<a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></div>
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<p>In Husserl's 1891 book <i>Philosophie der Arithmetik</i>, he adduced "<a href="/wiki/Psychologism" title="Psychologism">psychologism</a>" in an attempt to show that the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number" title="Cardinal number">cardinal number</a> derived from psychical acts of grouping objects and counting them.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup> Instead, Frege sought to show that mathematics and logic have their own validity, independent of the judgments or mental states of individual mathematicians and logicians. Frege further developed his philosophy of logic and mathematics in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Arithmetic" title="The Foundations of Arithmetic">The Foundations of Arithmetic</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Basic_Laws_of_Arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="The Basic Laws of Arithmetic">The Basic Laws of Arithmetic</a></i> where he provided an alternative to psychological accounts of the concept of a number. Husserl later gave his own devastating critiques of psychologism.</p>
<p>Late 19th-century English philosophy was dominated by <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Language">Language</span></h4>
<p>Wittgenstein saw all philosophical problems as language problems. Early Wittgenstein and the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivists" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical positivists">logical positivists</a> saw language as reducible to logical terms, perhaps exemplified in Russell's theory of definite descriptions. Wittgenstein shifted later, presenting language as a social phenomenon, not reducible to logical terms. Quine and others rejected the logical positivists. This was supported by the theory of <a href="/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature">implicature</a> and in <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">performative utterance</a>.</p>
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<a href="/wiki/W._V._O._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. O. Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></div>
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<p>Frege denied that terms have meaning in virtue of the objects to which they refer. Much of Kripke's fame comes from disputing Frege on this point. Kripke made influential contributions to logic, especially <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>. His work has profoundly influenced the analytic tradition. His principal contribution was a semantics for modal logic, involving <a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">possible worlds</a> as described in <a href="/wiki/Kripke_semantics" title="Kripke semantics">Kripke semantics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup> Notable Quine student <a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a> is probably best known for his controversial <a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">modal realist</a> stance that all possible worlds exist; with our world as but one among them. That is, when you say "It is possible you could jump over the moon" an actual world exists wherein that could happen.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Continental">Continental</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div>
<p>Continental philosophy comprises 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions developed in mainland Europe. This term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the second half of the 20th century, who used it to refer to European traditions outside the analytic movement. Continental philosophy includes <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>, phenomenology, existentialism (and its antecedents, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche), <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, structuralism, post-structuralism, French feminism, <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">psychoanalytic theory</a> and the critical theory of the Frankfurt School and related branches of <a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a>.</p>
<p>Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> (Heidegger, Sartre, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">poststructuralism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a>). Continental philosophy was largely rejected by the Anglosphere. E.g., Quine labeled Derrida's work as "pseudophilosophy". <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a> argued that these and other schools of 20th century philosophy, including his own, oppose classical <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualism</a> that is both <a href="/wiki/Anti-essentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-essentialism">anti-essentialist</a> and anti-metaphysical.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalytic</a> work of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a> and others influenced continental thought. <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a> independently revived <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial theory">Postcolonial theory</a>, was developed in the late 20th century by theorists such <a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Spivak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homi_K._Bhabha" title="Homi K. Bhabha">Bhabha</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a> synthesized <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusserian</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> thought in discussions of popular culture and politics. Žižek attempted to escape <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a> of the 20th century. Key contributors to this movement are <a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">speculative realists</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Meillassoux" title="Quentin Meillassoux">Meillassoux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ray_Brassier" title="Ray Brassier">Brassier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a> offered close readings of <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjection" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjection">subjectivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">corporeality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antigone" title="Antigone">kinship</a>, <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> and non-violent <a href="/wiki/Anti-zionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-zionism">ethics</a>, attracting criticism from Žižek, <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a> and radical <a href="/wiki/Zionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionists">Zionists</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="German_idealism">German idealism</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (seated on the left, holding the paper) and a group of friends.</div>
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<p>Idealism informed philosophy again from the 18th century to the early 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>'s transcendental idealism described limits on what can be understood, since objective judgment cannot encompass every phenomenon.His <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (1781–1787) attempted to reconcile rationalism and empiricism and to reestablish metaphysics. Kant's intention was consider what we know and identify what must be true about it, as a logical consequence of the <i>way</i> we know it. One major theme was that fundamental features of reality evade direct knowledge because of limits to human faculties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1881_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1881-137">[137]</a></sup> Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual</a> or <a href="/wiki/Categorical_framework" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical framework">categorical framework</a> on sensory data—a framework including space and time. He maintained that <i>things-in-themselves</i> exist independently of perceptions and judgments. Thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling">Schelling</a> dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.</p>
<p>The most notable work of this tradition was <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new. He claimed that previous philosophies were incomplete and attempted to complete them. Hegel asserted that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for contradictions apparent in human experience (such as the supposed contradiction between "being" and "not being") and to resolve them by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions became known as the "Hegelian <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>".</p>
<p>Philosophers influenced by Hegel include <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Andreas_Feuerbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach">Feuerbach</a> (who coined the term "projection" to describe our inability to recognize external objects without envisioning qualities of ourselves in them), <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealists</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" class="mw-redirect" title="T. H. Green">Green</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">McTaggart</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">Bradley</a>. Unlike idealism, Hegelian dialectic and Kant's "Copernican Turn" remain important philosophical concepts.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Phenomenology">Phenomenology</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:162px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/160px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" width="160" height="230" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/240px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/320px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="1024" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></div>
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<p>Husserl's phenomenology was an attempt to give an account of the structure of conscious experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-138">[138]</a></sup> He attempted to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called <i><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dreyfus_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dreyfus-139">[139]</a></sup> In the first part of his two-volume work, <i><a href="/wiki/Logical_Investigations_(Husserl)" title="Logical Investigations (Husserl)">Logical Investigations</a></i> (1901), he launched an extended attack on <a href="/wiki/Psychologism" title="Psychologism">psychologism</a>. In the second part, he developed <i>descriptive phenomenology</i>, attempting to show how objective judgments are grounded in conscious experience. He was not speaking of the first-person experiences of particular individuals, but in the properties essential to any such experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-138">[138]</a></sup> He also attempted to identify the essential properties of any act of meaning.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What is an act of meaning? (June 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> He developed the method further in <i>Ideas</i> (1913) as transcendental phenomenology, proposing to ground experience and thus human knowledge, in the structure of consciousness of an ideal, or <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendental</a>, ego. Later, he attempted to reconcile his transcendental standpoint with an acknowledgement of the intersubjective <a href="/wiki/Life-world" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-world">life-world</a> in which real subjects interact. Husserl published only a few works, which treated phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left many unpublished concrete analyses. Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the creation of phenomenological schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as Heidegger (formerly Husserl's research assistant), <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a> and Sartre. Via Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced existentialism.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Existentialism">Existentialism</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></div>
<p>Existentialism<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism-140">[140]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995259_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995259-141">[141]</a></sup> is the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living individual.<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism26_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism26-142">[142]</a></sup> In existentialism, the individual's starting point is called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless/absurd world.<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism27_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism27-143">[143]</a></sup> Many existentialists regarded traditional philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete experience.<sup id="cite_ref-existentialism28_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism28-144">[144]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialism29_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialism29-145">[145]</a></sup></p>
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<a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></div>
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<p>Although they did not use the term, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-kierkegaard_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kierkegaard-146">[146]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bob_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bob-147">[147]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialists_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialists-148">[148]</a></sup> The main target of Kierkegaard's writings was Hegel's idealist philosophical system that he thought ignored or excluded the inner subjective life of living human beings. Kierkegaard conversely held that "truth is subjectivity", arguing that what is most important to a subject deal with the subject's inner relationship to existence. Kierkegaard, a Christian, believed that the truth of religious faith was a subjective question to be wrestled with passionately.<sup id="cite_ref-Fear_and_Trembling_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fear_and_Trembling-149">[149]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript-150">[150]</a></sup></p>
<p>Although Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were among his influences, the extent to which Heidegger can be considered an existentialist is debatable. In <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (<i>Dasein</i>) to be analysed in terms of existential categories (<i>existentiale</i>). This led many commentators to treat him as an existentialist. However, in <i>The Letter on Humanism</i>, Heidegger explicitly rejected Sartre's existentialism. Sartre became the tradition's best-known proponent, exploring it in theoretical works such as <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i>, and in plays and novels. Sartre, along with <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a>, represented an atheistic branch of existentialism, now more closely associated with their ideas of <a href="/wiki/Nausea_(novel)" title="Nausea (novel)">nausea</a>, contingency, <a href="/wiki/Bad_faith#Ethics.2C_phenomenology.2C_existentialism" title="Bad faith">bad faith</a> and the absurd than with spiritual angst. The individual's responsibility for the authenticity of his or her existence is common to all these thinkers.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Structuralism_and_post-structuralism">Structuralism and post-structuralism</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></div>
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<p>Inaugurated by linguist <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure</a>, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a> they define. Saussure conceived of the sign as delimited by the other signs in the system and that ideas could not exist prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought toward the "decentering" of the speaker: language is no not spoken to express a true inner self: instead language "speaks" the speaker. Structuralism sought the imprimatur of a hard science, but its <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> soon came under fire by poststructuralists, some of whom were former structuralists.</p>
<p>Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, but the poststructuralists argued that structures cannot transcend and thus analysis is determined by the object of analysis. While the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as unambiguous by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to comprehend the signified results only in more signifiers, ever deferring meaning, ultimately defeating interpretation. Structuralism dominated continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, encompassing <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a> and Lacan. Post-structuralism dominated from the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as Foucault, Derrida, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a> and even Barthes.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wm_james.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/220px-Wm_james.jpg" width="220" height="298" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/330px-Wm_james.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/440px-Wm_james.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="744" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></div>
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<p>Pragmatism asserts that the truth of beliefs consists in their usefulness and efficacy rather than their correspondence with reality.<sup id="cite_ref-Rorty_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rorty-151">[151]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James</a> were its co-founders and it was later modified by <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a> as <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualised final truth as something established only by the future, final settlement of all opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam-152">[152]</a></sup></p>
<p>Pragmatism attempted to find a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. It interpreted the meaning of a statement by the effect its acceptance would have on practice. Inquiry taken far enough is thus the only path to truth.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup></p>
<p>For <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a> commitment to inquiry was essential to truth-finding, implied by the idea and hope that inquiry is not fruitless. The interpretation of these principles has been subject to discussion ever since. Peirce's <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">maxim of pragmatism</a> is, "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object."<sup id="cite_ref-paragraphs_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paragraphs-154">[154]</a></sup></p>
<p>Critics accused pragmatism falling victim to a simple fallacy: that because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is an appropriate basis for its truthfulness.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-155">[155]</a></sup> Pragmatist thinkers include Dewey, <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a>, Quine and <a href="/wiki/C._I._Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="C. I. Lewis">Lewis</a>. Pragmatism was later worked on by Rorty, Lachs, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Haack</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a>.</p>
<p>Instrumentalism is named for its premise that theories are tools or instruments identifying reliable means-end relations found in experience, but not claiming to reveal realities beyond experience.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup> Its premises and practices were most clearly and persuasively stated by <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a>. Independently, they defined the school quite similarly, but their judgments of its premises were irreconcilable.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_approaches">Other approaches</span></h3>
<p>A variety of other academic and non-academic approaches have been explored.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Thomism">Thomism</span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a></div>
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<p>Largely Aristotelian in its approach and content, <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a> is a philosophical tradition that follows the writings of Thomas Aquinas. His work has been read, studied and disputed since the 13th century, especially by Roman Catholics. Aquinas enjoyed a revived interest beginning in the late 19th century, among both atheists (<a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>) and theists (<a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup> Thomist philosophers tend to be <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a> in epistemology, as well as metaphysical <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethicists</a>. The claim that humans are rational animals whose good can be known by reason that can be achieved by the will. Thomists (e.g., Aristotle) argue that soul or psyche is real and immaterial but inseparable from matter in organisms. Soul is the form of the body. Thomists accept Aristotle's causes as natural, including teleological or final causes. In this way, although Aquinas argued that whatever is in the intellect begins in the senses, natural teleology can be discerned with the senses and abstracted from nature through induction.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup></p>
<p>Contemporary Thomism encompasses multiple variants, from <a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a> to Existential Thomism.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup></p>
<p>The so-called new <a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">natural lawyers</a> like <a href="/wiki/Germain_Grisez" title="Germain Grisez">Grisez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a> applied Thomistic legal principles to contemporary ethical debates, while Freeman proposed that Thomism's cognition as most compatible with <a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">neurodynamics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_Joseph_Haldane" class="mw-redirect" title="John Joseph Haldane">Haldane</a>) encourages dialogue between analytic philosophy and broadly Aristotelian philosophy of mind, psychology and <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphic</a> metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-PatersonPugh2006_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PatersonPugh2006-160">[160]</a></sup> Other contemporary Thomists include <a href="/wiki/Eleonore_Stump" title="Eleonore Stump">Stump</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Applied_philosophy">Applied philosophy <span id="Applied_philosophy"></span></span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg" width="170" height="206" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/255px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/340px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2473" data-file-height="3000" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther King Jr">Martin Luther King Jr</a></div>
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<p>The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a> argued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields applications such as those in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>—<a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a> in particular—and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. The political and economic philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rushd">Ibn Rushd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr." title="Martin Luther King, Jr.">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a> have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions. Progressive education as championed by <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a> had a profound impact on 20th century US educational practices. Descendants of this movement include efforts in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_for_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy for children">philosophy for children</a>, which are part of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">philosophy education</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Clausewitz</a>'s political <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">philosophy of war</a> has had a profound effect on <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">statecraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="International politics">international politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">military strategy</a> in the 20th century, especially around <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Logic is important in <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>.</p>
<p>Other important applications can be found in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence and justified belief (important in <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a> and a number of other disciplines). The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> discusses the underpinnings of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. As such, philosophy has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a>'s behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. <a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> can help to interpret discussions of <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Plastic_arts" title="Plastic arts">plastic arts</a> and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Marxism">Marxism</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></div>
<p>Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis, originating from Marx and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a>. It analyzes <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class relations</a> and societal conflict using a <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> interpretation of historical development and a <a href="/wiki/Dialectics#Marxist_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectics">dialectical view</a> of social transformation. Marxist analyses and methodologies influenced political ideologies and social movements. Marxist understandings of history and society were adopted by academics in archaeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociology, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology and philosophy.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_and_society">Philosophy and society</span></h2>
<p>Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professors</a> who teach, research and write in academic institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.<sup id="cite_ref-whystudyphilosophy.com_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whystudyphilosophy.com-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup> For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians <a href="/wiki/Steve_Martin" title="Steve Martin">Steve Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ricky_Gervais" title="Ricky Gervais">Ricky Gervais</a>, filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Malick" title="Terrence Malick">Terrence Malick</a>, Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a>, Wikipedia co-founder <a href="/wiki/Larry_Sanger" title="Larry Sanger">Larry Sanger</a>, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Bryer</a> and vice presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Carly_Fiorina" title="Carly Fiorina">Carly Fiorina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Role_of_women">Role of women</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg/150px-Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg" width="150" height="239" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg/225px-Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg/300px-Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="480" /></a>
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American philosopher of mind and philosopher of art <a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a> (1895–1985).</div>
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<p>Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women have engaged in philosophy throughout history. Women <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> have contributed since ancient times–notably <a href="/wiki/Hipparchia_of_Maroneia" title="Hipparchia of Maroneia">Hipparchia of Maroneia</a> (active ca. 325 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Arete_of_Cyrene" title="Arete of Cyrene">Arete of Cyrene</a> (active 5th–4th century BC). More were accepted during the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern</a> eras, but no women philosophers became part the <a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Western canon</a> until the 20th and 21st century, when some sources indicate that <a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> entered the canon.<sup id="cite_ref-Duran.2C_Jane_2005_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duran.2C_Jane_2005-165">[165]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-read.hipporeads.com_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-read.hipporeads.com-166">[166]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began <a href="/wiki/Mixed-sex_education#Higher-education_institutions" title="Mixed-sex education">admitting women</a>, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Education">U.S. Department of Education</a> reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salary.2C_Promotion_1997_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salary.2C_Promotion_1997-167">[167]</a></sup> In 2014, <i><a href="/wiki/Inside_Higher_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Inside Higher Education">Inside Higher Education</a></i> described the philosophy "...discipline’s own long history of <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a>" of women students and professors.<sup id="cite_ref-insidehighered.com_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insidehighered.com-168">[168]</a></sup><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Saul" title="Jennifer Saul">Jennifer Saul</a> stated in 2015 that women are "...leaving philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated against." <sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-169">[169]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the early 1990s, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Philosophical_Association" title="Canadian Philosophical Association">Canadian Philosophical Association</a> noted a gender imbalance and <a href="/wiki/Gender_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender bias">gender bias</a> in the academic field of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-nas.org_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nas.org-170">[170]</a></sup> In June 2013, a US sociology professor stated that "out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total."<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup> Susan Price argues that the philosophical "...canon remains dominated by white males—the discipline that...still hews to the myth that genius is tied to gender."<sup id="cite_ref-theatlantic.com_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theatlantic.com-172">[172]</a></sup> According to Saul, "[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, is also the malest (and the whitest). While other areas of the humanities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics."<sup id="cite_ref-salon.com_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salon.com-173">[173]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Popular_culture">Popular culture</span></h3>
<p>In 2000, the <a href="/wiki/Open_Court_Publishing_Company" title="Open Court Publishing Company">Open Court Publishing Company</a> began publishing a series of books on philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>. Each book consists of essays written by philosophers for general readers. The books "explore the meanings, concepts and puzzles within television shows, movies, music and other icons of popular culture"<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup> analyzing topics such as the TV shows <i><a href="/wiki/Seinfeld" title="Seinfeld">Seinfeld</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Simpsons" title="The Simpsons">The Simpsons</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Matrix_(franchise)" title="The Matrix (franchise)">The Matrix</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Star_Wars" title="Star Wars">Star Wars</a></i> movies and related media and new technological developments such as the <a href="/wiki/IPod" title="IPod">iPod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>. Their most recent publication (as of 2016) is titled <i>Louis C.K. and Philosophy</i>; its subject is the comedian <a href="/wiki/Louis_C.K." title="Louis C.K.">Louis C.K.</a>.</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Matrix" title="The Matrix">The Matrix</a></i> makes numerous references to philosophy including <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>. The film's premise resembles <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_Cave" title="Allegory of the Cave">Allegory of the cave</a>, Descartes's <a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">evil demon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>'s reflections on the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">Phenomenon</a> versus the <a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Ding an sich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_dreamed_he_was_a_butterfly" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly">Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly</a>", Marxist social theory and the <a href="/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat" title="Brain in a vat">brain in a vat</a> thought experiment. Many references to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> appear in the film, although Baudrillard himself considered this a misrepresentation.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline of philosophy</a></div>
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<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" width="18" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="Book icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" width="30" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></td>
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<ul style="font-weight: bold">
<li><a href="/wiki/Book:Philosophy" title="Book:Philosophy">Book: Philosophy</a></li>
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</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">List of important publications in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">List of years in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophy_journals" title="List of philosophy journals">List of philosophy journals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">List of unsolved problems in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Lists of philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-biblehub.com-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-biblehub.com_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biblehub.com/greek/5385.htm">"Strong's Greek Dictionary 5385"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Strong%27s+Greek+Dictionary+5385&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Fgreek%2F5385.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-oed.com2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oed.com2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/142505?rskey=WbBDMG&amp;result=1&amp;isAdvanced=false#eid">"Home&#160;: Oxford English Dictionary"</a>. <i>oed.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Home+%3A+Oxford+English+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F142505%3Frskey%3DWbBDMG%26result%3D1%26isAdvanced%3Dfalse%23eid&amp;rft.jtitle=oed.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=philosophy&amp;searchmode=none">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. Etymonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dphilosophy%26searchmode%3Dnone&amp;rft.pub=Etymonline.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Webster.27s_New_World_Dictionary_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The definition of philosophy is: "1. orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". <cite class="citation book"><i>Webster's New World Dictionary</i> (Second College ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Webster%27s+New+World+Dictionary&amp;rft.edition=Second+College&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophy-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophy_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, <i>Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: "Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A.C._Grayling" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Grayling">A.C. Grayling</a>, <i>Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject</i> (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: "The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Adler, Mortimer J. (28 March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=Pv3BHyktJWkC"><i>How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization</i></a>. Chicago, Ill.: Open Court. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9412-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9412-3">978-0-8126-9412-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Mortimer+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Adler&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+Think+About+the+Great+Ideas%3A+From+the+Great+Books+of+Western+Civilization&amp;rft.date=2000-03-28&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPv3BHyktJWkC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9412-3&amp;rft.place=Chicago%2C+Ill.&amp;rft.pub=Open+Court&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-justification-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-justification_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFQuinton" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Quinton" title="Anthony Quinton">Quinton, Anthony</a>, <i>The ethics of philosophical practice</i>, p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ">666</a>, <q>Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systematic" class="extiw" title="wikt:systematic">systematic</a> kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.aulast=Quinton&amp;rft.btitle=The+ethics+of+philosophical+practice&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=666&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> in <a href="#CITEREFHonderich1995">Honderich 1995</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Greco, John, ed. (1 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=Ozv0lftrUeEC"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism</i></a> (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983680-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983680-2">978-0-19-983680-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Skepticism&amp;rft.date=2011-10-01&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzv0lftrUeEC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-983680-2&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Glymour, Clark (10 April 2015). "Chapters 1-6". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=G4lLCAAAQBAJ"><i>Thinking Things Through: An Introduction to Philosophical Issues and Achievements</i></a> (2nd ed.). A Bradford Book. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52720-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52720-0">978-0-262-52720-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Chapters+1-6&amp;rft.aufirst=Clark&amp;rft.aulast=Glymour&amp;rft.btitle=Thinking+Things+Through%3A+An+Introduction+to+Philosophical+Issues+and+Achievements&amp;rft.date=2015-04-10&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG4lLCAAAQBAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-52720-0&amp;rft.pub=A+Bradford+Book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/skepcont/">"Contemporary Skepticism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Contemporary+Skepticism+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fskepcont%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=www.iep.utm.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.html">"The Internet Classics Archive | The Republic by Plato"</a>. <i>classics.mit.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=The+Internet+Classics+Archive+%7C+The+Republic+by+Plato&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FPlato%2Frepublic.html&amp;rft.jtitle=classics.mit.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/freewill/">"Free Will | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Free+Will+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Ffreewill%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=www.iep.utm.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-auto23-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto23_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto23_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&amp;search=philosophy">"Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.etymonline.com</i>. Online Etymological Dictionary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2016</span>. <q>The English word "philosophy" is first attested to c. 1300, meaning "knowledge, body of knowledge."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fallowed_in_frame%3D0%26search%3Dphilosophy&amp;rft.jtitle=www.etymonline.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg20073-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg20073_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg20073_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg2007">Lindberg 2007</a>, p.&#160;3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Shapin, Steven (1 January 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=6BIr19MTXAMC"><i>The Scientific Revolution</i></a> (1st ed.). University Of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75021-7">978-0-226-75021-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft.aulast=Shapin&amp;rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution&amp;rft.date=1998-01-01&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6BIr19MTXAMC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-226-75021-7&amp;rft.pub=University+Of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Briggle, Robert Frodeman and Adam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/01/11/when-philosophy-lost-its-way/?_r=0">"When Philosophy Lost Its Way"</a>. <i>Opinionator</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=When+Philosophy+Lost+Its+Way&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+Frodeman+and+Adam&amp;rft.aulast=Briggle&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopinionator.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F01%2F11%2Fwhen-philosophy-lost-its-way%2F%3F_r%3D0&amp;rft.jtitle=Opinionator&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sartwell, Crispin (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N., ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/beauty/"><i>Beauty</i></a> (Spring 2014 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Crispin&amp;rft.aulast=Sartwell&amp;rft.btitle=Beauty&amp;rft.date=2014-01-01&amp;rft.edition=Spring+2014&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2014%2Fentries%2Fbeauty%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plato_philosopher-greater_hippias/1926/pb_LCL167.335.xml">"PLATO, Hippias Major | Loeb Classical Library"</a>. <i>Loeb Classical Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=PLATO%2C+Hippias+Major+%7C+Loeb+Classical+Library&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loebclassics.com%2Fview%2Fplato_philosopher-greater_hippias%2F1926%2Fpb_LCL167.335.xml&amp;rft.jtitle=Loeb+Classical+Library&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Feyerabend, Paul; Hacking, Ian (11 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=8y-FVtrKeSYC"><i>Against Method</i></a> (4th ed.). Verso. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-442-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-442-8">978-1-84467-442-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft.au=Hacking%2C+Ian&amp;rft.aulast=Feyerabend&amp;rft.btitle=Against+Method&amp;rft.date=2010-05-11&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8y-FVtrKeSYC&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84467-442-8&amp;rft.pub=Verso&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/noz-poli/#SH3i">"Nozick, Robert: Political Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Nozick%2C+Robert%3A+Political+Philosophy+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fnoz-poli%2F%23SH3i&amp;rft.jtitle=www.iep.utm.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/rawls/#H2">"Rawls, John | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Rawls%2C+John+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Frawls%2F%23H2&amp;rft.jtitle=www.iep.utm.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">More, Thomas (8 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=EZajAQAAQBAJ"><i>Utopia</i></a>. Courier Corporation. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-11070-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-11070-7">978-0-486-11070-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.aulast=More&amp;rft.btitle=Utopia&amp;rft.date=2015-05-08&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEZajAQAAQBAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-486-11070-7&amp;rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metaphysics">"Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmetaphysics&amp;rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epistemology">"Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fepistemology&amp;rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-whystudyphilosophy.com-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-whystudyphilosophy.com_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-whystudyphilosophy.com_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whystudyphilosophy.com/">"Why Study Philosophy? An Unofficial "Daily Nous" Affiliate"</a>. <i>www.whystudyphilosophy.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Study+Philosophy%3F+An+Unofficial+%22Daily+Nous%22+Affiliate&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whystudyphilosophy.com%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=www.whystudyphilosophy.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-:02-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Brown, Robert F. (1 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=b_VvghYDArwC"><i>Lectures on the History of Philosophy: Greek philosophy</i></a>. Clarendon Press. p.&#160;33. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927906-7">978-0-19-927906-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Brown%2C+Robert+F.&amp;rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&amp;rft.aulast=Hegel&amp;rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+History+of+Philosophy%3A+Greek+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2006-01-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db_VvghYDArwC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-927906-7&amp;rft.pages=33&amp;rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DSym.%3Asection%3D201d">"Plato's "Symposium<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>. p.&#160;201d and following<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Plato%27s+%22Symposium%22&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0174%253Atext%253DSym.%253Asection%253D201d&amp;rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&amp;rft.pages=201d+and+following.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-process-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-process_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Process and Reality</i> p. 39</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-etymonline.com-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etymonline.com_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=philosophy">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <i>etymonline.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphilosophy&amp;rft.jtitle=etymonline.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kant, Immanuel (2012-05-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=YASbAEhCLw0C"><i>Kant: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107401068" title="Special:BookSources/9781107401068">9781107401068</a>. <q>Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three branches of knowledge: natural science, ethics, and logic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Immanuel&amp;rft.aulast=Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Kant%3A+Groundwork+of+the+Metaphysics+of+Morals&amp;rft.date=2012-05-21&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYASbAEhCLw0C&amp;rft.isbn=9781107401068&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">McGinn, Colin (8 December 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=o_xMMPWzIecC"><i>Problems in Philosophy: The Limits of Inquiry</i></a> (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-475-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-475-8">978-1-55786-475-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Colin&amp;rft.aulast=McGinn&amp;rft.btitle=Problems+in+Philosophy%3A+The+Limits+of+Inquiry&amp;rft.date=1993-12-08&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do_xMMPWzIecC&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-55786-475-8&amp;rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sms.cam.ac.uk/media/1484158">"Video &amp; Audio: Why isn't there more progress in philosophy? - Metadata"</a>. <i>www.sms.cam.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Video+%26+Audio%3A+Why+isn%27t+there+more+progress+in+philosophy%3F+-+Metadata&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sms.cam.ac.uk%2Fmedia%2F1484158&amp;rft.jtitle=www.sms.cam.ac.uk&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Brewer, Talbot (11 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=d15rGnw_6rUC"><i>The Retrieval of Ethics</i></a> (1st ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969222-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969222-4">978-0-19-969222-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Talbot&amp;rft.aulast=Brewer&amp;rft.btitle=The+Retrieval+of+Ethics&amp;rft.date=2011-06-11&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd15rGnw_6rUC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-969222-4&amp;rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consc.net/taxonomy.html">"A Taxonomy of Philosophy"</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Plantinga, Alvin (2014-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/religion-science/"><i>Religion and Science</i></a> (Spring 2014 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Alvin&amp;rft.aulast=Plantinga&amp;rft.btitle=Religion+and+Science&amp;rft.date=2014-01-01&amp;rft.edition=Spring+2014&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2014%2Fentries%2Freligion-science%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WebsterRUD-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WebsterRUD_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">G &amp; C. Merriam Co.</a> (1913). Noah Porter, eds. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&amp;word=epistemology&amp;use1913=on"><i>Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary</i></a> (1913 ed.). G &amp; C. Merriam Co. p.&#160;501<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2012</span>. <q>E*pis`te*mol"o*gy (?), n. [Gr. knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=G+%26+C.+Merriam+Co.&amp;rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Revised+Unabridged+Dictionary&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft.edition=1913&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmachaut.uchicago.edu%2F%3Fresource%3DWebster%2527s%26word%3Depistemology%26use1913%3Don&amp;rft.pages=501&amp;rft.pub=G+%26+C.+Merriam+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelly (1998) p. ix</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arlisna.org/artdoc/vol18/iss2/01.pdf">Review</a> by Tom Riedel (<a href="/wiki/Regis_University" title="Regis University">Regis University</a>)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetic">"Merriam-Webster.com"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster.com&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Faesthetic&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics">Definition 1 of <i>aesthetics</i></a> from the <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriam-Webster Dictionary">Merriam-Webster Dictionary</a> Online.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zangwill, Nick. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetic-judgment/">Aesthetic Judgment</a>", <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>, 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 24 July 2008.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/aesthetic">"aesthetic – definition of aesthetic in English from the Oxford dictionary"</a>. <i>oxforddictionaries.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=aesthetic+%93+definition+of+aesthetic+in+English+from+the+Oxford+dictionary&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Faesthetic&amp;rft.jtitle=oxforddictionaries.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">White, Curtis (2014-08-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=e2mPgcXPNNIC"><i>The Science Delusion: Asking the Big Questions in a Culture of Easy Answers</i></a>. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781612193908" title="Special:BookSources/9781612193908">9781612193908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Curtis&amp;rft.aulast=White&amp;rft.btitle=The+Science+Delusion%3A+Asking+the+Big+Questions+in+a+Culture+of+Easy+Answers&amp;rft.date=2014-08-05&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De2mPgcXPNNIC&amp;rft.isbn=9781612193908&amp;rft.place=Brooklyn%2C+N.Y.&amp;rft.pub=Melville+House&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Carnap, Rudolf (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.uky.edu/stable/20023651">"<span style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</span>Inductive Logic and Science"."</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i> <b>80</b> (3): 189–97. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F20023651">10.2307/20023651</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-04-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=%22Inductive+Logic+and+Science%22.&amp;rft.aufirst=Rudolf&amp;rft.aulast=Carnap&amp;rft.date=1953&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org.ezproxy.uky.edu%2Fstable%2F20023651&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20023651&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=189-97&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=80" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-literature-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-literature_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Lichtheim, <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature</i>, p.61</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-grimal-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grimal_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grimal, p.79</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuccellati1981-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuccellati1981_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuccellati1981">Buccellati 1981</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuccellati198143-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuccellati198143_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuccellati198143">Buccellati &amp; 1981 43</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-pe-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pe_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pe_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ebrey, Patricia (2010). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia&amp;rft.aulast=Ebrey&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-juergensmeyer-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-juergensmeyer_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005). <i>Religion in global civil society</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;70. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518835-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518835-6">978-0-19-518835-6</a>. <q>...humanist philosophies such as Confucianism, which do not share a belief in divine law and do not exalt faithfulness to a higher law as a manifestation of divine will</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft.aulast=Juergensmeyer&amp;rft.btitle=Religion+in+global+civil+society&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-518835-6&amp;rft.pages=70&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1998536-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1998536_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1998536_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1998">Craig 1998</a>, p.&#160;536.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHonderich1995">Honderich 1995</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" class="mw-redirect" title="Tusculan Disputations">Tusculan Disputations</a></i>, 5.3.8–9 = <a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> fr. 88 Wehrli, <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> 1.12, 8.8, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> <i>VP</i> 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by C.J. De Vogel, <i>Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism</i> (1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, <i>Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence</i> (2005), p. 92.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-principal-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-principal_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p 22, <i>The Principal Upanisads</i>, Harper Collins, 1994</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowker21999259-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowker21999259_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowker21999">Bowker 21999</a>, p.&#160;259.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sarva-Darsana_Sangraha_of_Madhava_Acharya:_Review_of_Different_Systems_of_Hindu_Philosophy_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Byles_Cowell" title="Edward Byles Cowell">Cowell, E.B.</a>; Gough, A.E. (1882). <i>Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy</i>. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. p.&#160;xii. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7030-875-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7030-875-1">978-81-7030-875-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=E.B.&amp;rft.au=Gough%2C+A.E.&amp;rft.aulast=Cowell&amp;rft.btitle=Sarva-Darsana+Sangraha+of+Madhava+Acharya%3A+Review+of+Different+Systems+of+Hindu+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1882&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-81-7030-875-1&amp;rft.pages=xii&amp;rft.place=New+Delhi&amp;rft.pub=Indian+Books+Centre%2FSri+Satguru+Publications&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jain, Vijay K. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC"><i>Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsutra</i></a>. p.&#160;5. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788190363921" title="Special:BookSources/9788190363921">9788190363921</a>. <q>Non-copyright</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Vijay+K.&amp;rft.aulast=Jain&amp;rft.btitle=Acharya+Umasvami%27s+Tattvarthsutra&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzLmx9bvtglkC&amp;rft.isbn=9788190363921&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-apte-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-apte_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apte, p. 497.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Blackburn-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blackburn_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blackburn, Simon (1994). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Blackburn%2C+Simon&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-encyclopedia-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-encyclopedia_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick Copleston, <i>A History of Philosophy, Volume II: From Augustine to Scotus</i> (Burns &amp; Oates, 1950), p. 1, dates medieval philosophy proper from the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century to the end of the fourteenth century, though he includes <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> and the Patristic fathers as precursors. Desmond Henry, in <a href="#CITEREFEdwards1967">Edwards 1967</a>, pp.&#160;252–257 volume 5, , starts with Augustine and ends with <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicholas of Oresme</a> in the late fourteenth century. David Luscombe, <i>Medieval Thought</i> (Oxford University Press, 1997), dates medieval philosophy from the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a> in 312 to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in the 1520s. Christopher Hughes, in A.C. Grayling (ed.), <i>Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject</i> (Oxford University Press, 1998), covers philosophers from Augustine to Ockham. <a href="#CITEREFGracia2008">Gracia 2008</a>, p.&#160;620 identifies medieval philosophy as running from Augustine to <a href="/wiki/John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John of St. Thomas</a> in the seventeenth century. <a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume II begins with Augustine and ends with the Lateran Council of 1512.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGracia20081-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGracia20081_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGracia2008">Gracia 2008</a>, p.&#160;1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-contemporaries-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-contemporaries_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988">Schmitt &amp; Skinner 1988</a>, p.&#160;5</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston195318-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston195318_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston195318_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopleston1953">Copleston 1953</a>, p.&#160;18: "When one looks at Renaissance philosophy … one is faced at first sight with a rather bewildering assortment of philosophies. … The bulk of Renaissance thinkers, scholars and scientists were, of course, Christians … but none the less the classical revival … helped to bring to the fore a conception of autonomous man or an idea of the development of the human personality, which, though generally Christian, was more 'naturalistic' and less ascetic than the mediaeval conception."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt19924-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt19924_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopenhaverSchmitt1992">Copenhaver &amp; Schmitt 1992</a>, p.&#160;4: "one may identify the hallmark of Renaissance philosophy as an accelerated and enlarged interest, stimulated by newly available texts, in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought that were previously unknown or partially known or little read."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-transmission-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-transmission_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Gracia, Jorge J.E. <i>Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject</i>. p.&#160;621. <q>the humanists … restored man to the centre of attention and channeled their efforts to the recovery and transmission of classical learning, particularly in the philosophy of Plato.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Jorge+J.E.&amp;rft.aulast=Gracia&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+2%3A+Further+through+the+Subject&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=621&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> in <a href="#CITEREFBunninTsui-James2008">Bunnin &amp; Tsui-James 2008</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-intellectual-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-intellectual_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988">Schmitt &amp; Skinner 1988</a>, pp.&#160;61, 63</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cassirer; Kristeller; Randall, eds. (1948). "Introduction". <i>The Renaissance Philosophy of Man</i>. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+Philosophy+of+Man&amp;rft.date=1948&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992285.E2.80.93328-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992285.E2.80.93328_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopenhaverSchmitt1992">Copenhaver &amp; Schmitt 1992</a>, pp.&#160;285–328.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophicae-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophicae_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pico Della Mirandola, Conclusiones philosophicae, cabalisticae et theologicae; Giordano Bruno, De Magia</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-scepticism-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scepticism_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Popkin, <i>The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle</i> (Oxford University Press, 2003).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston1953228.E2.80.93229-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston1953228.E2.80.93229_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopleston1953">Copleston 1953</a>, pp.&#160;228–229.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3_p._8-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3_p._8_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume 3 p. 8: "The Lutheran Reformation […] gave new impetus to the sceptical trend."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Machiavelli appears as the first modern political thinker" <cite class="citation book">Williams, Garrath. "Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/"><i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Garrath&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>. "Machiavelli ought not really to be classified as either purely an "ancient" or a "modern," but instead deserves to be located in the interstices between the two." <cite class="citation book">Nederman, Cary. "Niccolò Machiavelli". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/"><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Niccol%C3%B2+Machiavelli&amp;rft.aufirst=Cary&amp;rft.aulast=Nederman&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmachiavelli%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992274.E2.80.93284-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopenhaverSchmitt1992274.E2.80.93284_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopenhaverSchmitt1992">Copenhaver &amp; Schmitt 1992</a>, pp.&#160;274–284.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmittSkinner1988430.E2.80.93452-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmittSkinner1988430.E2.80.93452_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988">Schmitt &amp; Skinner 1988</a>, pp.&#160;430–452.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Japanese_Philosophy-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Japanese_Philosophy_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blocker, H. Gene; Starling, Christopher L. (2001). <i>Japanese Philosophy</i>. SUNY Press. p.&#160;64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+Gene&amp;rft.aulast=Blocker&amp;rft.au=Starling%2C+Christopher+L.&amp;rft.btitle=Japanese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft.pub=SUNY+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang19995-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang19995_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang19995_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuang1999">Huang 1999</a>, p.&#160;5.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1963460-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan1963460_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan1963460_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChan1963">Chan 1963</a>, p.&#160;460.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-banarsidass-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-banarsidass_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sharma, Peri Sarveswara (1980). <i>Anthology of Kum?rilabhaṭṭa's Works</i>. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. p.&#160;5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Peri+Sarveswara&amp;rft.aulast=Sharma&amp;rft.btitle=Anthology+of+Kum%C4%81rilabha%E1%B9%E1%B9a%27s+Works&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.pub=Delhi%2C+Motilal+Banarsidass&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-google-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Indich, William M. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&amp;pg=PA7"><i>Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp.&#160;7ff. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1251-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1251-2">978-81-208-1251-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=William+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Indich&amp;rft.btitle=Consciousness+in+Advaita+Vedanta&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7ykZjWOiBMoC%26pg%3DPA7&amp;rft.isbn=978-81-208-1251-2&amp;rft.pages=7ff.&amp;rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gandhi_And_Mahayana_Buddhism_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm">"Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism"</a>. Class.uidaho.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Gandhi+And+Mahayana+Buddhism&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.class.uidaho.edu%2Fngier%2FGB.htm&amp;rft.pub=Class.uidaho.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford7-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanford7_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wainwright, William, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2010/entries/concepts-god/">"Concepts of God"</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00855lt">"In Our Time: Existence"</a>. bbcnews.com. 8 November 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=In+Our+Time%3A+Existence&amp;rft.date=2007-11-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb00855lt&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mann1491-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mann1491_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mann, Charles C. <i><a href="/wiki/1491:_New_Revelations_of_the_Americas_Before_Columbus" title="1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus">1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus</a></i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. p, 121.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-iepMaffie-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iepMaffie_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iepMaffie_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maffie, James. "Aztec Philosophy." <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aztec.htm">[1]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophers-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophers_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRutherford2006">Rutherford 2006</a>, p.&#160;xiii <a href="#CITEREFNadler2008">Nadler 2008</a>, p.&#160;1. <a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, p.&#160;107</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20081.E2.80.932-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20081.E2.80.932_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNadler2008">Nadler 2008</a>, pp.&#160;1–2: "By the seventeenth century […] it had become more common to find original philosophical minds working outside the strictures of the university—i.e., ecclesiastic—framework. […] by the end of the eighteenth century, [philosophy] was a secular enterprise."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xii-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xii_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume 3, p. xii: "To someone approaching the early modern period of philosophy from an ancient and medieval background the most striking feature of the age is the absence of Aristotle from the philosophic scene."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rutherford-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rutherford_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rutherford_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRutherford2006">Rutherford 2006</a>, p.&#160;1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._211-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._211_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume 3, p. 211: "The period between Descartes and Hegel was the great age of metaphysical system-building."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._179.E2.80.93180-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._179.E2.80.93180_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume 3, pp. 179–180: "the seventeenth century saw the gradual separation of the old discipline of natural philosophy into the science of physics […] [b]y the nineteenth century physics was a fully mature empirical science, operating independently of philosophy."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._212.E2.80.93331-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_pp._212.E2.80.93331_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume 3, pp. 212–331.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20082.E2.80.933-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20082.E2.80.933_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNadler2008">Nadler 2008</a>, p.&#160;2–3: "Why should the early modern period in philosophy begin with Descartes and Bacon, for example, rather than with Erasmus and Montaigne? […] Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and especially with Bacon and Descartes, certain questions and concerns come to the fore—a variety of issues that motivated the inquiries and debates that would characterize much philosophical thinking for the next two centuries."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy11_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">"Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/"><i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> "Hobbes is the founding father of modern political philosophy. Directly or indirectly, he has set the terms of debate about the fundamentals of political life right into our own times."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">"Contractarianism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism/"><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Contractarianism&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcontractarianism%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>: "Contractarianism […] stems from the Hobbesian line of social contract thought"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERutherford20061-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutherford20061_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRutherford2006">Rutherford 2006</a>, p.&#160;1: "Most often this [period] has been associated with the achievements of a handful of great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists' (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) and 'empiricists' (Locke, Berkeley, Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kant's 'Critical philosophy.' These canonical figures have been celebrated for the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philosophical questions..."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20082-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20082_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNadler2008">Nadler 2008</a>, p.&#160;2: "The study of early modern philosophy demands that we pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expansive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical figures (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'..."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical13-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical13_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Kuklick" title="Bruce Kuklick">Bruce Kuklick</a>, "Seven Thinkers and How They Grew: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; Kant" in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner (eds.), <i>Philosophy in History</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 125: "Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often rely on a notion of what is <i>canonical</i>. In American philosophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey; in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F. Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes and Locke […] The texts or authors who fill in the blanks from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, constitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of' American literature, economic thought, and so on. The most conventional of such histories are embodied in university courses and the textbooks that accompany them. This essay examines one such course, the History of Modern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the initial response would be: they were the best, and there are historical and philosophical connections among them."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xiii-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenny2012volume_3.2C_p._xiii_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenny2012">Kenny 2012</a>, volume 3, p. xiii.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20083-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler20083_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNadler2008">Nadler 2008</a>, p.&#160;3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Shand-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shand_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shand, John (ed.) <i>Central Works of Philosophy, Vol.3 The Nineteenth Century</i> (McGill-Queens, 2005)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-universities-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-universities_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2003">Baldwin 2003</a>, p.&#160;<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=I09hCIlhPpkC&amp;pg=PA4">Philosophy</a></i>, p. 4, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-frederick-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-frederick_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beiser, Frederick C. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Hegel</i>, (Cambridge, 1993).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-transformation-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-transformation_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2003">Baldwin 2003</a>, p.&#160;119</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophical16-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophical16_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a>, <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century</i>, vol. 2, p. 463.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BriggleFrodeman2016-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BriggleFrodeman2016_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Briggle, Adam; Frodeman, Robert (1 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=cCZtrgEACAAJ"><i>Socrates Tenured: The Institutions of 21st-century Philosophy</i></a>. Rowman &amp; Littlefield International. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78348-309-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78348-309-9">978-1-78348-309-9</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved May 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Adam&amp;rft.au=Frodeman%2C+Robert&amp;rft.aulast=Briggle&amp;rft.btitle=Socrates+Tenured%3A+The+Institutions+of+21st-century+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2016-08-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcCZtrgEACAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-78348-309-9&amp;rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+International&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanfordBR-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanfordBR_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">"Bertrand Russell"</a>, 1 May 2003: "Russell is generally recognized as one of the founders of modern analytic philosophy. […] he is regularly credited with being one of the most important logicians of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards.5B.2F.2Fbooks.google.com.2Fbooks.3Fid.3DUxErAAAAMAAJ_volume_7_239.5D-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards.5B.2F.2Fbooks.google.com.2Fbooks.3Fid.3DUxErAAAAMAAJ_volume_7_239.5D_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards">Edwards</a>, p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=UxErAAAAMAAJ">volume 7 239</a>: "Russell has exercised an influence on the course of Anglo-American philosophy in the twentieth century second to that of no other individual."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophers18-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philosophers18_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2003">Baldwin 2003</a>, p.&#160;376</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-wittgenstein-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wittgenstein_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Stroll, Avrum (6 October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=ikirAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA25"><i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p.&#160;252. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11221-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11221-5">978-0-231-11221-5</a>. <q>More than any other analytic philosopher, [Wittgenstein] has changed the thinking of a whole generation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Avrum&amp;rft.aulast=Stroll&amp;rft.btitle=Twentieth-Century+Analytic+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2001-10-06&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DikirAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-231-11221-5&amp;rft.pages=252&amp;rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-utm-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-utm_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/wittgens/">"Wittgenstein, Ludwig"</a> in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Ludwig Wittgenstein is one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century, and regarded by some as the most important since Immanuel Kant."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-contemporary-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-contemporary_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin, <i>Contemporary Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 90: "[Quine] has been, without question, the most influential American philosopher of the second half of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-encyclopedia19-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-encyclopedia19_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Hylton, "Quine", in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Quine's work has been extremely influential and has done much to shape the course of philosophy in the second-half of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-uncontroversially-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-uncontroversially_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bailey,, Andrew (2004). <i>First Philosophy: Knowledge and Reality</i>. Broadview Press. p.&#160;274. <q>Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) was uncontroversially one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Andrew&amp;rft.aulast=Bailey%2C&amp;rft.btitle=First+Philosophy%3A+Knowledge+and+Reality&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=274&amp;rft.pub=Broadview+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-wittgenstein20-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wittgenstein20_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kenny, Anthony (17 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=jY8DsIgX5-UC&amp;pg=PA64"><i>Philosophy in the Modern World: A New History of Western Philosophy</i></a>. OUP Oxford. p.&#160;64. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152499-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152499-8">978-0-19-152499-8</a>. <q>After Wittgenstein's death many people regarded W.V.O. Quine (1908–2000) as the doyen of Anglophone philosophy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.aulast=Kenny&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Modern+World%3A+A+New+History+of+Western+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2007-05-17&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjY8DsIgX5-UC%26pg%3DPA64&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-152499-8&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford21-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanford21_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/david-lewis/">David Lews</a>: "David Lewis (1941–2001) was one of the most important philosophers of the 20th Century. He made significant contributions to philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of science, decision theory, epistemology, meta-ethics and aesthetics. In most of these fields he is essential reading; in many of them he is among the most important figures of recent decades. And this list leaves out his two most significant contributions."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-introduction-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-introduction_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Perry_(philosopher)" title="John Perry (philosopher)">John Perry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bratman" title="Michael Bratman">Michael Bratman</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_Fischer" title="John Martin Fischer">John Martin Fischer</a> (eds.), <i>Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings</i>, 4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 302: "David Lewis (1941–2001) was one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford22-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanford22_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/">"Edmund Husserl"</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>: "Edmund Husserl was the principal founder of phenomenology—and thus one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-utm23-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-utm23_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/husserl/">"Husserl, Edmund"</a>, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "he is arguably one of the most important and influential philosophers of the twentieth century."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-influential-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-influential_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geuss, Raymond in <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2003">Baldwin 2003</a>, p.&#160;497</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-utm24-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-utm24_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/heidegge/">"Heidegger, Martin"</a>, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Martin Heidegger is widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th century".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Curd-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Curd_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Anaxagoras (11 March 2011). "Anaxagoras of Clazomenae". In Curd, Patricia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=o6EOWiORwRUC"><i>A Presocratics Reader</i></a>. Hackett Publishing. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60384-608-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-60384-608-5">1-60384-608-5</a>. <q>B12</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Anaxagoras+of+Clazomenae&amp;rft.au=Anaxagoras&amp;rft.btitle=A+Presocratics+Reader&amp;rft.date=2011-03-11&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do6EOWiORwRUC&amp;rft.isbn=1-60384-608-5&amp;rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-diane-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diane_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diane_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Collinson, Diane (24 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=kBOAAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA125"><i>Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference Guide</i></a>. Routledge. p.&#160;125. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-28130-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-28130-5">978-1-134-28130-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Diane&amp;rft.aulast=Collinson&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Major+Philosophers%2C+A+Reference+Guide&amp;rft.date=2007-01-24&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkBOAAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA125&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-134-28130-5&amp;rft.pages=125&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas Joll, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/con-meta/">http://www.iep.utm.edu/con-meta/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Analytical_Philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Origins of Analytical Philosophy (page does not exist)">Origins of Analytical Philosophy</a></i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-russell-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-russell_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Russell, Bertrand (22 February 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics">"<i>The Principles of Mathematics</i> (1903)"</a>. Fair-use.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Bertrand&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Mathematics+%281903%29&amp;rft.date=1999-02-22&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffair-use.org%2Fbertrand-russell%2Fthe-principles-of-mathematics&amp;rft.pub=Fair-use.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Russell, Bertrand (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/anglica/Chronology/20thC/Russell/rus_deno.html">"On Denoting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i> <b>14</b>: 473–93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=On+Denoting&amp;rft.aufirst=Bertrand&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.date=1905&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fh-augsburg.de%2F~harsch%2Fanglica%2FChronology%2F20thC%2FRussell%2Frus_deno.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Mind&amp;rft.pages=473-93&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=14" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PenguinDicP22-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mautner, Thomas (editor) (2005) <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, entry for 'Analytic philosophy<i>, pp.22–3</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baillie, James, "Introduction to Bertrand Russell" in <i>Contemporary Analytic Philosophy, Second Edition</i> (Prentice Hall, 1997), p. 25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Moore's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_Common_Sense" title="A Defence of Common Sense">A Defence of Common Sense</a></i> and Russell's critique of the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_internal_relations" title="Doctrine of internal relations">Doctrine of internal relations</a>,</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Analytic philosophy opposed right from its beginning English neo-Hegelianism of Bradley's sort and similar ones. It did not only criticize the latter's denial of the existence of an external world (anyway an unjust criticism), but also the bombastic, obscure style of Hegel's writings." <cite class="citation journal">Jonkers, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arsdisputandi.org/publish/articles/000129/article.pdf">"Perspectives on Twentieth Century Philosophy:A Reply to Tom Rockmore"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_Disputandi" title="Ars Disputandi">Ars Disputandi</a></i> <b>3</b>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1566-5399">1566-5399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Perspectives+on+Twentieth+Century+Philosophy%3AA+Reply+to+Tom+Rockmore&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft.aulast=Jonkers&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arsdisputandi.org%2Fpublish%2Farticles%2F000129%2Farticle.pdf&amp;rft.issn=1566-5399&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Disputandi&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=3" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Willard, Dallas. "Husserl on a Logic that Failed". <i>Philosophical Review</i> <b>89</b> (1): 52–53. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2184863">10.2307/2184863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Husserl+on+a+Logic+that+Failed&amp;rft.au=Willard%2C+Dallas&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2184863&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Review&amp;rft.pages=52-53&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=89" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerry Fodor, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n20/jerry-fodor/waters-water-everywhere">Water's water everywhere</a>", <i>London Review of Books</i>, 21 October 2004</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rorty, Richard. <i>Philosophy and Social Hope</i>&gt;. Penguin.1999: 47-48.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1881-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1881_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1881">Kant 1881</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Ref-1-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Woodruff Smith, David (2007). <i>Husserl</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Woodruff+Smith%2C+David&amp;rft.btitle=Husserl&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Dreyfus-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dreyfus_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_L._Dreyfus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert L. Dreyfus">Dreyfus, Hubert L.</a>; Wrathall, Mark A. (24 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=xGNN75vXX0MC"><i>A Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5656-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5656-4">978-1-4443-5656-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Hubert+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Dreyfus&amp;rft.au=Wrathall%2C+Mark+A.&amp;rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Phenomenology+and+Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2011-08-24&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxGNN75vXX0MC&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5656-4&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pages 18–21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995259-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich1995259_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHonderich1995">Honderich 1995</a>, p.&#160;259.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism26-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism26_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pages 14–15.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism27-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism27_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert C. Solomon, <i>Existentialism</i> (McGraw-Hill, 1974, pages 1–2)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism28-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism28_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Breisach, <i>Introduction to Modern Existentialism</i>, New York (1962), page 5</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialism29-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialism29_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Kaufmann, <i>Existentialism: From Dostoevesky to Sartre</i>, New York (1956) page 12</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-kierkegaard-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kierkegaard_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Matustik, Martin J. (1995). <i>Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity</i>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20967-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20967-2">978-0-253-20967-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Matustik%2C+Martin+J.&amp;rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+in+Post%2FModernity&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-253-20967-2&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Bob-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bob_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Solomon, Robert (2001). <i>What Nietzsche Really Said</i>. Schocken. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1094-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1094-1">978-0-8052-1094-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Solomon%2C+Robert&amp;rft.btitle=What+Nietzsche+Really+Said&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8052-1094-1&amp;rft.pub=Schocken&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialists-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialists_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Religious thinkers were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Berdyaev" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Berdyaev">Nicholas Berdyaev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> (although he preferred to speak of his "philosophical faith"). The Jewish philosophers <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a> have also been associated with existentialism.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Fear_and_Trembling-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fear_and_Trembling_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1986). <i>Fear and Trembling</i>. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044449-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044449-0">978-0-14-044449-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.btitle=Fear+and+Trembling&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-14-044449-0&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02081-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02081-5">978-0-691-02081-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.btitle=Concluding+Unscientific+Postscript&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-02081-5&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Rorty-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rorty, Richard (1982). <i>The Consequences of Pragmatism</i>. Minnesota: Minnesota University Press. p.&#160;xvi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Rorty%2C+Richard&amp;rft.btitle=The+Consequences+of+Pragmatism&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=xvi&amp;rft.place=Minnesota&amp;rft.pub=Minnesota+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Putnam-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Putnam, Hilary (1995). <i>Pragmatism: An Open Question</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp.&#160;8–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Putnam%2C+Hilary&amp;rft.btitle=Pragmatism%3A+An+Open+Question&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=8-12&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C. S. (1878), "<a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear" class="extiw" title="s:How to Make Our Ideas Clear">How to Make Our Ideas Clear</a>", <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, v. 12, 286–302. Reprinted often, including <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 388–410 and <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, 124–41. See end of §II for the pragmatic maxim. See third and fourth paragraphs in §IV for the discoverability of truth and the real by sufficient investigation. Also see quotes from Peirce from across the years in the entries for <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/truth.html">"Truth"</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/pragmatismmaxim.html">"Pragmatism, Maxim of..."</a> in the <i>Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms</i>, Mats Bergman and Sami Paavola, editors, University of Helsinki.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-paragraphs-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-paragraphs_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce on p. 293 of "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 286–302. Reprinted widely, including Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 5, paragraphs 388–410.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Pratt-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pratt_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Pratt, J. B. (1909). <i>What is Pragmatism?</i>. New York: Macmillan. p.&#160;89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.au=Pratt%2C+J.+B.&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+Pragmatism%3F&amp;rft.date=1909&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=89&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Stanford, P. Kyle (2006). "Instrumentalism". In Sarkar, Sahotra; Pfiffer, Jessica. <i>The Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia</i> <b>1</b>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Instrumentalism&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+Kyle&amp;rft.aulast=Stanford&amp;rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Science%3A+An+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kerr, Fergu (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=GlIDGodwC30C"><i>After Aquinas: Versions of Thomism</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3714-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3714-0">978-1-4051-3714-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Fergu&amp;rft.aulast=Kerr&amp;rft.btitle=After+Aquinas%3A+Versions+of+Thomism&amp;rft.date=2008-04-15&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGlIDGodwC30C&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3714-0&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aquinas, "<i>De veritate</i>, Q.2, art.3, answer 19".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Feser, Edward (1 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=uWdCAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA216"><i>Aquinas: A Beginner's Guide</i></a>. Oneworld Publications. p.&#160;216. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-690-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-690-2">978-1-85168-690-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward&amp;rft.aulast=Feser&amp;rft.btitle=Aquinas%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&amp;rft.date=2009-09-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuWdCAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA216&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-85168-690-2&amp;rft.pages=216&amp;rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PatersonPugh2006-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PatersonPugh2006_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Paterson, Craig; Pugh, Matthew S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=hRIp3FaoqqUC"><i>Analytical Thomism: Traditions in Dialogue</i></a>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3438-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3438-6">978-0-7546-3438-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Craig&amp;rft.aulast=Paterson&amp;rft.au=Pugh%2C+Matthew+S.&amp;rft.btitle=Analytical+Thomism%3A+Traditions+in+Dialogue&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhRIp3FaoqqUC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3438-6&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philosophy.as.uky.edu/where-can-philosophy-take-me">"Where Can Philosophy Take Me? | Philosophy"</a>. <i>philosophy.as.uky.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Where+Can+Philosophy+Take+Me%3F+%7C+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.as.uky.edu%2Fwhere-can-philosophy-take-me&amp;rft.jtitle=philosophy.as.uky.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Cropper, Carol Marie (1997-12-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html">"Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life And in Work"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Philosophers+Find+the+Degree+Pays+Off+in+Life+And+in+Work&amp;rft.aufirst=Carol+Marie&amp;rft.aulast=Cropper&amp;rft.date=1997-12-26&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1997%2F12%2F26%2Fbusiness%2Fphilosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html&amp;rft.issn=0362-4331&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Marketing, Mansfield University Department of. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mansfield.edu/philosophy/famous-philosophy-majors.cfm">"Famous Philosophy Majors | Mansfield University"</a>. <i>www.mansfield.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Famous+Philosophy+Majors+%7C+Mansfield+University&amp;rft.aufirst=Mansfield+University+Department+of&amp;rft.aulast=Marketing&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mansfield.edu%2Fphilosophy%2Ffamous-philosophy-majors.cfm&amp;rft.jtitle=www.mansfield.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">W, Justin (2014-12-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dailynous.com/2014/12/08/famous-philosophy-majors-poster/">"Famous Philosophy Majors Poster (updated with new link)"</a>. <i>Daily Nous</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Famous+Philosophy+Majors+Poster+%28updated+with+new+link%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Justin&amp;rft.aulast=W&amp;rft.date=2014-12-08&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdailynous.com%2F2014%2F12%2F08%2Ffamous-philosophy-majors-poster%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=Daily+Nous&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Duran.2C_Jane_2005-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Duran.2C_Jane_2005_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duran, Jane. Eight women philosophers: theory, politics, and feminism. University of Illinois Press, 2005.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-read.hipporeads.com-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-read.hipporeads.com_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://read.hipporeads.com/why-i-left-academia-philosophys-homogeneity-needs-rethinking/#">"Why I Left Academia: Philosophy’s Homogeneity Needs Rethinking - Hippo Reads"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Why+I+Left+Academia%3A+Philosophy%99s+Homogeneity+Needs+Rethinking+-+Hippo+Reads&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fread.hipporeads.com%2Fwhy-i-left-academia-philosophys-homogeneity-needs-rethinking%2F%23&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Salary.2C_Promotion_1997-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Salary.2C_Promotion_1997_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Salary, Promotion, and Tenure Status of Minority and Women Faculty in U.S. Colleges and Universities."National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical Analysis Report, March 2000; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 2000–173;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93). See also "Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities." National Center For Education Statistics, E.D. Tabs, July 1997. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 97-973;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF-93).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-insidehighered.com-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-insidehighered.com_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/05/19/unofficial-internet-campaign-outs-professor-alleged-sexual-harassment-attempted">"Unofficial Internet campaign outs professor for alleged sexual harassment, attempted assault"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Unofficial+Internet+campaign+outs+professor+for+alleged+sexual+harassment%2C+attempted+assault&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2F05%2F19%2Funofficial-internet-campaign-outs-professor-alleged-sexual-harassment-attempted&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Ratcliffe, Rebecca; Shaw, Claire (5 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2015/jan/05/philosophy-is-for-posh-white-boys-with-trust-funds-why-are-there-so-few-women">"Philosophy is for posh, white boys with trust funds' – why are there so few women?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Rebecca&amp;rft.aulast=Ratcliffe&amp;rft.au=Shaw%2C+Claire&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+is+for+posh%2C+white+boys+with+trust+funds%27+%93+why+are+there+so+few+women%3F&amp;rft.date=2015-01-05&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fhigher-education-network%2F2015%2Fjan%2F05%2Fphilosophy-is-for-posh-white-boys-with-trust-funds-why-are-there-so-few-women&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nas.org-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nas.org_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis">"Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis -&#160;National Association of Scholars"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Women+in+Philosophy%3A+Problems+with+the+Discrimination+Hypothesis+-+National+Association+of+Scholars&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nas.org%2Farticles%2Fwomen_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Sesardic, Neven; De Clercq, Rafael (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ln.edu.hk/philoso/staff/sesardic/WIP-AQ.pdf">"Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Academic Questions</i> (New York: Springer Science+Business Media). <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12129-014-9464-x">10.1007/s12129-014-9464-x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Women+in+Philosophy%3A+Problems+with+the+Discrimination+Hypothesis&amp;rft.au=De+Clercq%2C+Rafael&amp;rft.aufirst=Neven&amp;rft.aulast=Sesardic&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ln.edu.hk%2Fphiloso%2Fstaff%2Fsesardic%2FWIP-AQ.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12129-014-9464-x&amp;rft.jtitle=Academic+Questions&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-theatlantic.com-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-theatlantic.com_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Price, Susan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/05/reviving-the-female-canon/393110/">"Reviving the Female Canon"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Susan&amp;rft.aulast=Price&amp;rft.btitle=Reviving+the+Female+Canon&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Feducation%2Farchive%2F2015%2F05%2Freviving-the-female-canon%2F393110%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-salon.com-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-salon.com_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.salon.com/2013/08/15/philosophy_has_a_sexual_harassment_problem/">http://www.salon.com/2013/08/15/philosophy_has_a_sexual_harassment_problem/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opencourtbooks.com/categories/pcp.htm">"Popular Culture and Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.opencourtbooks.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Popular+Culture+and+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opencourtbooks.com%2Fcategories%2Fpcp.htm&amp;rft.jtitle=www.opencourtbooks.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101021010544/http://www.ubishops.ca/BaudrillardStudies/vol2_2/rovira.htm">"IJBS"</a>. Web.archive.org. 2010-10-21. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubishops.ca/BaudrillardStudies/vol2_2/rovira.htm">the original</a> on October 21, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=IJBS&amp;rft.date=2010-10-21&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ubishops.ca%2FBaudrillardStudies%2Fvol2_2%2Frovira.htm&amp;rft.pub=Web.archive.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span></h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-30em" style="-moz-column-count: 30em; -webkit-column-count: 30em; column-count: 30em;">
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<li><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1967" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Edwards_(philosopher)" title="Paul Edwards (philosopher)">Edwards, Paul</a>, ed. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=uqaajgEACAAJ"><i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Macmillan &amp; Free Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuqaajgEACAAJ&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Free+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
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<li><cite id="CITEREFKant1881" class="citation book">Kant, Immanuel (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=cn9JAAAAYAAJ"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Immanuel&amp;rft.aulast=Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&amp;rft.date=1881&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcn9JAAAAYAAJ&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
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<li><cite id="CITEREFBowker1999" class="citation book">Bowker, John (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=5fSQQgAACAAJ"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</i></a>. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866242-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866242-6">978-0-19-866242-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Bowker&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+World+Religions&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5fSQQgAACAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-866242-6&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Incorporated&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
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<li><cite id="CITEREFBaldwin2003" class="citation book">Baldwin, Thomas, ed. (27 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=I09hCIlhPpkC"><i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870-1945</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59104-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59104-1">978-0-521-59104-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Philosophy+1870-1945&amp;rft.date=2003-11-27&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI09hCIlhPpkC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-59104-1&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCopenhaverSchmitt1992" class="citation book">Copenhaver, Brian P.; Schmitt, Charles B. (24 September 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=CgsFAQAAIAAJ"><i>Renaissance philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-219203-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-219203-5">978-0-19-219203-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian+P.&amp;rft.aulast=Copenhaver&amp;rft.au=Schmitt%2C+Charles+B.&amp;rft.btitle=Renaissance+philosophy&amp;rft.date=1992-09-24&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCgsFAQAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-219203-5&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNadler2008" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a> (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=KENbzY8uDGkC"><i>A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99883-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99883-0">978-0-470-99883-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft.aulast=Nadler&amp;rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Early+Modern+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2008-04-15&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKENbzY8uDGkC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-99883-0&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRutherford2006" class="citation book">Rutherford, Donald (12 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=lH8FAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82242-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82242-8">978-0-521-82242-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald&amp;rft.aulast=Rutherford&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Early+Modern+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2006-10-12&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlH8FAQAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-82242-8&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988" class="citation book">Schmitt, C. B.; Skinner, Quentin, eds. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=jJnyxg3xxTEC"><i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39748-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39748-3">978-0-521-39748-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Renaissance+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjJnyxg3xxTEC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-39748-3&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKenny2012" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Kenny, Anthony</a> (16 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=rco-uQAACAAJ"><i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958988-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958988-3">978-0-19-958988-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.aulast=Kenny&amp;rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Western+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2012-08-16&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drco-uQAACAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-958988-3&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHonderich1995" class="citation book">Honderich, T., ed. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0">978-0-19-866132-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsI4YAAAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-866132-0&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFBunninTsui-James2008" class="citation book">Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=HNWIcgEswrsC&amp;pg=PA620"><i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1">978-0-470-99787-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2008-04-15&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHNWIcgEswrsC%26pg%3DPA620&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-99787-1&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCopleston1953" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston, Frederick Charles</a> (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=QZ1WkHs5wHcC"><i>A history of philosophy: volume III: Ockham to Suárez</i></a>. Paulist Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-0067-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-0067-5">978-0-8091-0067-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick+Charles&amp;rft.aulast=Copleston&amp;rft.btitle=A+history+of+philosophy%3A+volume+III%3A+Ockham+to+Su%C3%A1rez&amp;rft.date=1953&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQZ1WkHs5wHcC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8091-0067-5&amp;rft.pub=Paulist+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLeamanMorewedge2000" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Leaman, Oliver</a>; Morewedge, Parviz (2000). "Islamic philosophy modern". In Craig, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=-MWK96fFN4UC"><i>Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22364-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-22364-4">0-415-22364-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Islamic+philosophy+modern&amp;rft.aufirst=Oliver&amp;rft.aulast=Leaman&amp;rft.au=Morewedge%2C+Parviz&amp;rft.btitle=Concise+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-MWK96fFN4UC&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-22364-4&amp;rft.pub=Psychology+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFBuccellati1981" class="citation journal">Buccellati, Giorgio (1981-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/602163">"Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1): 35–47. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F602163">10.2307/602163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Wisdom+and+Not%3A+The+Case+of+Mesopotamia&amp;rft.aufirst=Giorgio&amp;rft.aulast=Buccellati&amp;rft.date=1981-01-01&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F602163&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F602163&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&amp;rft.pages=35-47&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=101" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General_introductions">General introductions</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li>Blumenau, Ralph. <i>Philosophy and Living</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780907845331" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-907845-33-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Craig_(philosopher)" title="Edward Craig (philosopher)">Craig, Edward</a>. <i>Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192854216" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6</a></li>
<li>Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, <i>Mastering Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333693438" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/20040807090338/http://philosophy.hku.hk:80/think/phil/russell/">The Problems of Philosophy</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195115529" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9</a></li>
<li>Sinclair, Alistair J. <i>What is Philosophy? An Introduction</i>, 2008, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903765944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Sober, Elliott</a>. (2001). <i>Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings</i>. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780131898691" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" title="Robert C. Solomon">Solomon, Robert C.</a> <i>Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780534167080" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton, Nigel</a>. <i>Philosophy: The Basics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415146944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-14694-4</a></li>
<li>Nagel, Thomas. <i>What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195052923" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-505292-3</a></li>
<li><i>Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, &amp; 3)</i> by Louis P. Pojman</li>
<li><i>The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill</i> by Edwin Arthur</li>
<li><i>European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche</i> by Monroe Beardsley</li>
<li>Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Tarnas" title="Richard Tarnas">Tarnas, Richard</a>. <i>The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780345368096" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Topical_introductions">Topical introductions</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Eastern">Eastern</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i>A Source Book in Indian Philosophy</i> by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore</li>
<li>Hamilton, Sue. <i>Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853745" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5</a></li>
<li>Kupperman, Joel J. <i>Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195133356" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-513335-6</a></li>
<li>Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. <i>Eastern Philosophy For Beginners</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780863162824" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4</a></li>
<li>Smart, Ninian. <i>World Philosophies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415228527" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-22852-7</a></li>
<li>Copleston, Frederick. <i>Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780268015695" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-268-01569-5</a></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="African">African</span></h4>
<ul>
<li>Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to African Philosophy<i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780847688418" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8</a></i></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Islamic">Islamic</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i>Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings</i> edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Leaman, Oliver. <i>A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1960-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1960-6">978-0-7456-1960-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Oliver&amp;rft.aulast=Leaman&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+Introduction+to+Islamic+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7456-1960-6&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Corbin, Henry</a> (23 June 2014) [1993]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=UNfgAwAAQBAJ"><i>History Of Islamic Philosophy</i></a>. Translated by Sherrard,, Liadain; <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sherrard" title="Philip Sherrard">Sherrard, Philip</a>. Taylor &amp; Francis. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19888-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19888-6">978-1-135-19888-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry&amp;rft.aulast=Corbin&amp;rft.btitle=History+Of+Islamic+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2014-06-23&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUNfgAwAAQBAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-135-19888-6&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=WNVcAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78105-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78105-6">978-1-136-78105-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Mehdi+Amin+Razavi&amp;rft.aulast=Aminrazavi&amp;rft.au=Nasr%2C+PH.D.%2C+Seyyed+Hossein&amp;rft.au=Nasr%2C+Seyyed+Hossein&amp;rft.btitle=The+Islamic+Intellectual+Tradition+in+Persia&amp;rft.date=2013-12-16&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWNVcAgAAQBAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-136-78105-6&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_introductions">Historical introductions</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Teodor_Oizerman" title="Teodor Oizerman">Oizerman, Teodor</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://su-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6529_OizermanT.I.-Main_trends_in_Philosophy.pdf"><i>The Main Trends in Philosophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the History of Philosophy</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(DjVu, etc.)</span>. translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>: <a href="/wiki/Progress_Publishers" title="Progress Publishers">Progress Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-01-000506-9" title="Special:BookSources/5-01-000506-9">5-01-000506-9</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2011</span>&#160;&#160;First published in Russian as «Главные фило?оф?кие направлени?»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Teodor&amp;rft.aulast=Oizerman&amp;rft.btitle=The+Main+Trends+in+Philosophy.+A+Theoretical+Analysis+of+the+History+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsu-ltd.mylivepage.ru%2Ffile%2F2715%2F6529_OizermanT.I.-Main_trends_in_Philosophy.pdf&amp;rft.isbn=5-01-000506-9&amp;rft.place=Moscow&amp;rft.pub=Progress+Publishers&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Higgins" title="Kathleen Higgins">Higgins, Kathleen M.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" title="Robert C. Solomon">Solomon, Robert C.</a> <i>A Short History of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195101966" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-510196-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>, <i>Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers</i>, Pocket, 1991, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671739164" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Teodor_Oizerman" title="Teodor Oizerman">Oizerman, Teodor</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leninist.biz/en/1973/PHP462/index.html"><i>Problems of the History of Philosophy</i></a>. translated from Russian by Robert Daglish (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>: <a href="/wiki/Progress_Publishers" title="Progress Publishers">Progress Publishers</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2011</span>&#160;&#160;First published in Russian as «Проблемы и?торико-фило?оф?кой науки»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Teodor&amp;rft.aulast=Oizerman&amp;rft.btitle=Problems+of+the+History+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fleninist.biz%2Fen%2F1973%2FPHP462%2Findex.html&amp;rft.place=Moscow&amp;rft.pub=Progress+Publishers&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient">Ancient</span></h4>
<ul>
<li>Knight, Kelvin. <i>Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745619774" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4</a></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval">Medieval</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i>The Phenomenology Reader</i> by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney</li>
<li>Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). <i>Metaphysics: An Anthology</i>. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=hC2Ac8VGLacC"><i>The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21273-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21273-1">0-253-21273-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Edmund&amp;rft.aulast=Husserl&amp;rft.au=Welton%2C+Donn&amp;rft.btitle=The+Essential+Husserl%3A+Basic+Writings+in+Transcendental+Phenomenology&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhC2Ac8VGLacC&amp;rft.isbn=0-253-21273-1&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern">Modern</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i>Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)</i> by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom</li>
<li>Curley, Edwin, <i>A Spinoza Reader</i>, Princeton, 1994, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691000671" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bullock" title="Alan Bullock">Bullock, Alan</a>, R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming, <i>eds</i>. <i>The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers</i>, in series, <i>Fontana Original[s]</i>. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780006369653" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-00-636965-3</a></li>
<li>Scruton, Roger. <i>A Short History of Modern Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415267632" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2</a></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary">Contemporary</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i>Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings</i> by James Baillie</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Appiah, Kwame Anthony</a>. <i>Thinking it Through&#160;&#160;– An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy</i>, 2003, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195134582" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2</a></li>
<li>Critchley, Simon. <i>Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853592" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reference_works">Reference works</span></h3>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><cite id="CITEREFChan1963" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Wing-tsit_Chan" title="Wing-tsit Chan">Chan, Wing-tsit</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=dzmMaVTvUzAC"><i>A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9">0-691-01964-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Wing-tsit&amp;rft.aulast=Chan&amp;rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Chinese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1963&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdzmMaVTvUzAC&amp;rft.isbn=0-691-01964-9&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHuang1999" class="citation book">Huang, Siu-chi (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC"><i>Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-26449-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-26449-X">0-313-26449-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Siu-chi&amp;rft.aulast=Huang&amp;rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Neo-Confucianism%3A+Eight+Major+Philosophers+of+the+Song+and+Ming+Periods&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsjzPPg8eK7sC&amp;rft.isbn=0-313-26449-X&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Honderich, T., ed. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0">978-0-19-866132-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsI4YAAAAIAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-866132-0&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> by Robert Audi</li>
<li><i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, <a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Luciano Floridi</a> (available online by subscription); or</li>
<li><i>The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)</li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Edwards_(philosopher)" title="Paul Edwards (philosopher)">Edwards, Paul</a>, ed. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=uqaajgEACAAJ"><i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Macmillan &amp; Free Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuqaajgEACAAJ&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Free+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/International_Directory_of_Philosophy_and_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers">International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Directory_of_American_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Directory of American Philosophers">Directory of American Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li>
<li><i>Routledge History of Philosophy</i> (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon</li>
<li><i>History of Philosophy</i> (9 vols.) by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a></li>
<li><i>A History of Western Philosophy</i> (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones</li>
<li><i>History of Italian Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Garin" title="Eugenio Garin">Eugenio Garin</a>. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.</li>
<li><i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies</i> (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print)</li>
<li><i>Indian Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by <a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan</a></li>
<li><i>A History of Indian Philosophy</i> (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta</li>
<li><i>History of Chinese Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde</li>
<li><i>Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming</i> by Chan, Wing-tsit</li>
<li><i>Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy</i> edited by Antonio S. Cua</li>
<li><i>Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion</i> by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs</li>
<li><i>Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy</i> by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam</li>
<li><i>A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English</i> by John A. Grimes</li>
<li><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i> edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman</li>
<li><i>History of Jewish Philosophy</i> edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman</li>
<li><i>A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries</i> by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin</li>
<li>Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) <i>A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations</i>. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.</li>
<li>Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)<i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford, Oxford University Press.</li>
<li>Mauter, T., Ed. <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. London, Penguin Books.</li>
<li>Runes, D., Ed. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/runes/"><i>The Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a>. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.</li>
<li>Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). <i>The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. New York, Harper Perennial.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.com/books?id=HNWIcgEswrsC"><i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1">978-0-470-99787-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy&amp;rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2008-04-15&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHNWIcgEswrsC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-99787-1&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) <i>Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy</i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li>
<li>Popkin, R.H. (1999). <i>The Columbia History of Western Philosophy</i>. New York, Columbia University Press.</li>
<li>Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, <i>jt. eds</i>. <i>The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. <i>N.B</i>.: "First published in England under the title, <i>The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>." <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060105785" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-06-010578-5</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Reese" title="William L. Reese">Reese, W. L.</a> <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought</i>. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780391006881" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-391-00688-1</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY">Library resources</a> about<br />
<b>Philosophy</b>
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<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Philosophy">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Philosophy&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/">PhilPapers</a> – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wadsworth.com/philosophy_d/special_features/timeline/timeline.html">Philosophy Timeline</a></li>
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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophyreview.blogspot.com/">Philosophy Magazines and Journals</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/">Philosophy</a> at <a href="/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.cambridge.org/phi">Philosophy (review)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdcnet.org/">Philosophy Documentation Center</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643889/The-Will-to-Believe-and-Other-Essays-in-Popular-Philosophy">Popular Philosophy</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
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</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace"><a href="//ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Achinese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93" title="???ስ??ና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang"><a href="//ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AA%C3%B0witegung" title="Ūðwitegung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="?لس?ة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup"><a href="//roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Aromanian" lang="roa-rup" hreflang="roa-rup">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as"><a href="//as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দৰ?শন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn"><a href="//gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupykuaaty" title="Arandupykuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay"><a href="//ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lup%27intawi" title="Lup'intawi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb"><a href="//azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="?لس?ه – تۆرکجه" lang="azb" hreflang="azb">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দর?শন – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiat-ha?k – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәл?әфә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філа?офі? – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філ?зофі? – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="//bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर?शन – भोजप?री" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजप?री</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фило?офи? – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo"><a href="//bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ? – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh" title="Prederouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – бур?ад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Бур?ад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Фило?офи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="//ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co"><a href="//co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth" title="Athroniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv"><a href="//myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C)" title="Эр?мо койтнень ?одамо?ь (фило?офи??ь) – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv">Эрз?нь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="//ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="?لس?ه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="//fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy" title="Filosofy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a href="//fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht" title="Fealsúnacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a href="//gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallsoonys" title="Fallsoonys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feallsanachd" title="Feallsanachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="//hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Chet-ho?k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="दर?शनशास?त?र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig"><a href="//ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%E1%BB%8D_na_Uche" title="?k? na Uche – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopia" title="Pilosopia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="//ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu"><a href="//iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%83%E1%93%B1%E1%92%AA%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="?ᓱᒪᓕ??ᓂᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu">?ᓄᒃᑎ?ᑦ/inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="//xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi" title="Ifilosofi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu"><a href="//zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFilosofi" title="IFilosofi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="פילוסופיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl"><a href="//kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuunerup_isumalerineq" title="Inuunerup isumalerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ತತ?ತ?ವಶಾಸ?ತ?ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილ?ს?ფი? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb"><a href="//csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofij%C3%B4" title="Filozofijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фило?офи? – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw"><a href="//rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw">Kinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="//ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фило?офи? – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a href="//lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="//lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фило?офи? – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="//lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ປັດຊະ?າ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><a href="//lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B2sofia" title="Filòsofia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske" title="pijyske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="//lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusufia" title="Filusufia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia" title="Filôzôfia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തത?ത?വശാസ?ത?രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a href="//mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत?त?वज?ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="?لس?ه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn"><a href="//mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="?لس?ه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn">ماز?رونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="//cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk" title="Diék-h?k – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Фило?офи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သဘာ??္ထဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="//nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlazohmatiliztli" title="Tlazohmatiliztli – N?huatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">N?huatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="//nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesefie" title="Filesefie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर?शन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर?शन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Фило?офи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a href="//frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm"><a href="//nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Nouormand" lang="nrm" hreflang="nrm">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov"><a href="//nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="//mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Фило?офий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om"><a href="//om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falaasama" title="Falaasama – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl"><a href="//pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%8C" title="?لاس?ی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap"><a href="//pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="?لس?ه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasafi" title="Filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="//km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសា?្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="//pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ACa" title="Filosofìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi"><a href="//tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi" title="Pilosopi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt"><a href="//pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="//kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie" title="Filozofie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a href="//rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay_wayllukuy" title="Yachay wayllukuy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філозофі? – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фило?офи? – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фило?офи? – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="तत?त?वज?ञानम? – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg"><a href="//sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2ndar%C3%A4" title="Sêndândarä – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="//sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><a href="//stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st"><a href="//st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa" title="Filusufìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="දර්?නය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a href="//so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasoofiyada" title="Filasoofiyada – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95" title="?ەلسە?ە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn"><a href="//srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_denki" title="Sabi fu denki – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மெய?யியல? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="//kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafelsuft" title="Tafelsuft – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәл?әфә – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="తత?వమ? – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెల?గ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ปรัช?า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="//tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Фал?афа – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr"><a href="//chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%A8%E1%8E%AF" title="Ꭴ?Ꮃ?Ꭿ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr">?ᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a href="//tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi%C3%BDa" title="Filosofiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філо?офі? – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="?لس?? – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug"><a href="//ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95" title="پەلسەپە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a href="//za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz" title="Cwzyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="//vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%82oxof%C3%ACa" title="Fiłoxofìa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Triết h?c – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop" title="Filosop – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofeye" title="Filozofeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo"><a 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