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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Metaphysics</h1>
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<p><b>Metaphysics</b> is a traditional branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of <a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">being</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> that encompasses it,<sup id="cite_ref-BECA_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BECA-1">[1]</a></sup> although the term is not easily defined.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>Ultimately, what <i>is there</i>?</li>
<li>What <i>is it like</i>?</li>
</ol>
<p>A person who studies metaphysics is called a <i>metaphysician</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Among other things, the metaphysician attempts to clarify the fundamental notions by which people understand the world, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">cause and effect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">possibility</a>. A central branch of metaphysics is <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, the investigation into the basic <a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">categories of being</a> and how they relate to each other. Some include <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> as another central focus of metaphysics, but others question this. Another central branch of metaphysics is <a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(metaphysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (metaphysics)">metaphysical cosmology</a>, an area of philosophy that seeks to understand the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and determine whether there is an ultimate meaning behind its existence. Metaphysical cosmology differs from physical cosmology, the study of the physical origins and evolution of the Universe.</p>
<p>Prior to the modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, scientific questions were addressed as a part of metaphysics known as <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>. Originally, the term "science" (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>scientia</i>) simply meant "knowledge". The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, however, transformed natural philosophy into an <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> activity deriving from <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a> unlike the rest of philosophy. By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to be called "science" to distinguish it from philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature of existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Gay_pp._132-141_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gay_pp._132-141-5">[5]</a></sup> Some philosophers of science, such as the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">neo-positivists</a>, say that natural science rejects the study of metaphysics, while other philosophers of science strongly disagree.</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Central_questions"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Central questions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Cosmology_and_cosmogony"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cosmology and cosmogony</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Being_and_ontology"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Being and ontology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Determinism_and_free_will"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Determinism and free will</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Identity_and_change"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Identity and change</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Mind_and_matter"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Mind and matter</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Necessity_and_possibility"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Necessity and possibility</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Religion_and_spirituality"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Religion and spirituality</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#The_nature_of_metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">The nature of metaphysics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#History_and_schools_of_metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">History and schools of metaphysics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Pre-Socratic_metaphysics_in_Greece"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-Socratic metaphysics in Greece</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Socrates_and_Plato"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Socrates and Plato</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Aristotle"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Aristotle</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Metaphysics_in_India"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Metaphysics in India</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#S.C4.81.E1.B9.83khya"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">S?ṃkhya</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Ved.C4.81nta"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ved?nta</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Scholasticism_and_the_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Scholasticism and the Middle Ages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Rationalism_and_Continental_Rationalism"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Rationalism and Continental Rationalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#British_empiricism"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">British empiricism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Kant"><span class="tocnumber">3.8</span> <span class="toctext">Kant</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Early_analytical_philosophy_and_positivism"><span class="tocnumber">3.9</span> <span class="toctext">Early analytical philosophy and positivism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Continental_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3.10</span> <span class="toctext">Continental philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Process_metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">3.11</span> <span class="toctext">Process metaphysics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Later_analytical_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3.12</span> <span class="toctext">Later analytical philosophy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Rejections_of_metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Rejections of metaphysics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Metaphysics_in_science"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Metaphysics in science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The word "metaphysics" derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> words μετά (<i><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">metá</a></i>, "beyond", "upon" or "after") and φυσικά (<i>physiká</i>, "physics").<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> It was first used as the title for several of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s works, because they were usually anthologized after the works on <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">physics</a> in complete editions. The prefix <i>meta-</i> ("after") indicates that these works come "after" the chapters on physics. However, Aristotle himself did not call the subject of these books "Metaphysics": he referred to it as "first philosophy." The editor of Aristotle's works, <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a>, is thought to have placed the books on first philosophy right after another work, <i>Physics</i>, and called them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικὰ βιβλία</span> (<i>ta meta ta physika biblia</i>) or "the books that come after the [books on] physics". This was misread by Latin <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scholiast" class="extiw" title="wikt:scholiast">scholiasts</a>, who thought it meant "the science of what is beyond the physical".</p>
<p>However, once the name was given, the commentators sought to find intrinsic reasons for its appropriateness. For instance, it was understood to mean "the science of the world beyond nature" (<i>physis</i> in Greek), that is, the science of the immaterial. Again, it was understood to refer to the chronological or pedagogical order among our philosophical studies, so that the "metaphysical sciences" would mean "those that we study after having mastered the sciences that deal with the physical world" (St. Thomas Aquinas, <i>Expositio in librum Boethii De hebdomadibus</i>, V, 1).</p>
<p>There is a widespread use of the term in current popular literature which replicates this understanding, i.e. that the metaphysical equates to the non-physical: thus, "metaphysical healing" means healing by means of remedies that are not physical.<i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></i></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_questions">Central questions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Central questions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cosmology_and_cosmogony">Cosmology and cosmogony</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Cosmology and cosmogony">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(metaphysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (metaphysics)">Cosmology (metaphysics)</a></div>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Cosmology#Metaphysical_cosmology" title="Cosmology">Metaphysical Cosmology</a></b> is the branch of metaphysics that deals with the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> as the totality of all <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> in <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>. Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many cases was founded in religion. The ancient Greeks drew no distinction between this use and their model for the cosmos. However, in modern times it addresses questions about the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> which are beyond the scope of the physical sciences. It is distinguished from religious cosmology in that it approaches these questions using philosophical methods (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectics</a>).</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></b> deals specifically with the origin of the universe.</p>
<p>Modern metaphysical cosmology and cosmogony try to address questions such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>What is the origin of the Universe? What is its first cause? Is its existence necessary? (see <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">emanationism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>)</li>
<li>What are the ultimate material components of the Universe? (see <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dynamism_(metaphysics)" title="Dynamism (metaphysics)">dynamism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>)</li>
<li>What is the ultimate reason for the existence of the Universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a>)</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Being_and_ontology">Being and ontology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Being and ontology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></div>
<p>Ontology deals with the determination whether <i><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">categories of being</a></i> are fundamental and discusses in what sense the items in those categories may be said to "be". It is the inquiry into being <i>in so much as</i> it is being ("being <i>qua</i> being"), or into beings insofar as they exist—and not insofar as (for instance) particular <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a> may be obtained about them or particular <a href="/wiki/Property_(metaphysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Property (metaphysics)">properties</a> belong to them.</p>
<p>Some philosophers, notably of the <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic school</a>, contend that all nouns (including <a href="/wiki/Abstract_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract noun">abstract nouns</a>) refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, but that some provide a kind of shorthand for reference to a collection of either <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> or <a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">events</a>. In this latter view, <i><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a></i>, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a collection of <i>mental events</i> experienced by a <i><a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">person</a></i>; <i><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a></i> refers to a collection of <i>persons</i> with some shared characteristics, and <i><a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a></i> refers to a collection of a specific kind of intellectual activity.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Between these poles of <a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" title="Platonic realism">realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a>, stand a variety of <a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">other positions</a>. An ontology may give an account of which words refer to entities, which do not, why, and what categories result.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Determinism_and_free_will">Determinism and free will</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Determinism and free will">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> that every event, including human cognition, decision and action, is <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causally</a> determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. It holds that nothing happens that has not already been determined. The principal consequence of the deterministic claim is that it poses a challenge to the existence of <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>.</p>
<p>The problem of <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> is the problem of whether rational agents exercise control over their own actions and decisions. Addressing this problem requires understanding the relation between freedom and causation, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic. Some philosophers, known as <a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilists</a>, view determinism and free will as <a href="/wiki/Mutually_exclusive" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually exclusive">mutually exclusive</a>. If they believe in determinism, they will therefore believe free will to be an illusion, a position known as <i>Hard Determinism</i>. Proponents range from <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Ted Honderich</a>.</p>
<p>Others, labeled <a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilists</a> (or "Soft Determinists"), believe that the two ideas can be reconciled coherently. Adherents of this view include <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> and many modern philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_Fischer" title="John Martin Fischer">John Martin Fischer</a>.</p>
<p>Incompatibilists who accept <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> but reject determinism are called <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarians</a>, a term not to be confused with the political sense. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kane_(philosopher)" title="Robert Kane (philosopher)">Robert Kane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> are modern defenders of this theory.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Identity_and_change">Identity and change</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Identity and change">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity (philosophy)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></div>
<p>The Greeks took some extreme positions on the nature of change: <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> denied that change occurs at all, while <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> thought change was ubiquitous: "[Y]ou cannot step into the same river twice."</p>
<p>Identity, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Numerical_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical identity">Numerical Identity</a>, is the relation that a "thing" bears to itself, and which no "thing" bears to anything other than itself (cf. <a href="/wiki/Sameness" class="mw-redirect" title="Sameness">sameness</a>). According to <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, if some object <i><b>x</b></i> is identical to some object <i><b>y</b></i>, then any property that <i><b>x</b></i> has, <i><b>y</b></i> will have as well. However, it seems, too, that objects can change over time. If one were to look at a tree one day, and the tree later lost a leaf, it would seem that one could still be looking at that same tree. Two rival theories to account for <a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">the relationship between change and identity</a> are <a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">Perdurantism</a>, which treats the tree as a series of tree-stages, and <a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">Endurantism</a>, which maintains that the tree—the same tree—is present at every stage in its history.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mind_and_matter">Mind and matter</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Mind and matter">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div>
<p>The nature of <a href="/wiki/Hyle" title="Hyle">matter</a> was a problem in its own right in early philosophy. Aristotle himself introduced the idea of matter in general to the Western world, adapting the term <i><a href="/wiki/Hyle" title="Hyle">hyle</a></i>, which originally meant "lumber." Early debates centered on identifying a single underlying principle. Water was claimed by <a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a>, air by <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Apeiron_(cosmology)" title="Apeiron (cosmology)">Apeiron</a></i> (the Boundless) by Anaximander, fire by <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, in conjunction with his mentor, <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a>, conceived of an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atomic</a> theory many centuries before it was accepted by modern science. It is worth noting, however, that the grounds necessary to ensure validity to the proposed theory's veridical nature were not scientific, but just as philosophical as those traditions espoused by Thales and Anaximander.</p>
<p>The nature of the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and its relation to the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a> has been seen as more of a problem as science has progressed in its mechanistic understanding of the brain and body. Proposed solutions often have ramifications about the nature of mind as a whole. <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">substance dualism</a>, a theory in which mind and body are essentially different, with the mind having some of the attributes traditionally assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>, in the seventeenth century. This creates a conceptual puzzle about how the two interact (which has received some strange answers, such as <a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">occasionalism</a>). Evidence of a close relationship between brain and mind, such as the <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a> case, have made this form of dualism increasingly unpopular.</p>
<p>Another proposal discussing the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a> is <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, in which the material is sweepingly eliminated in favor of the mental. Idealists, such as <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, claim that material objects do not exist unless perceived and only as perceptions. The "German idealists" such as <a href="/wiki/Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a> took <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> as their starting-point, although it is debatable how much of an idealist Kant himself was. Idealism is also a common theme in Eastern philosophy. Related ideas are <a href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">panpsychism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panexperientialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Panexperientialism">panexperientialism</a>, which say everything <i>has</i> a mind rather than everything exists <i>in</i> a mind. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> was a twentieth-century exponent of this approach.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> theory which holds that there is a single universal substance or principle. <a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a>, associated in different forms with <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, seeks to be less extreme than idealism, and to avoid the problems of <a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">substance dualism</a>. It claims that existence consists of a single substance that in itself is neither mental nor physical, but is capable of mental and physical aspects or attributes&#160;– thus it implies a <a href="/wiki/Dual-aspect_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual-aspect theory">dual-aspect theory</a>.</p>
<p>For the last one hundred years, the dominant metaphysics has without a doubt been <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialistic monism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Identity_theory_of_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity theory of mind">Type identity theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Token_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Token identity">token identity theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reductive_physicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductive physicalism">reductive physicalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nonreductive_physicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonreductive physicalism">nonreductive physicalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">eliminative materialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">property dualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a> are just some of the candidates for a scientifically informed account of the mind. (It should be noted that while many of these positions are dualisms, none of them are <i>substance</i> dualism.)</p>
<p>Prominent recent philosophers of mind include <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Armstrong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Douglas Hofstadter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Lewis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">John Smart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Alan_Wolf" title="Fred Alan Wolf">Fred Alan Wolf</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Necessity_and_possibility">Necessity and possibility</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Necessity and possibility">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">Modal logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Modal realism</a></div>
<p>Metaphysicians investigate questions about the ways the world could have been. <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Lewis</a>, in "On the Plurality of Worlds," endorsed a view called Concrete <a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Modal realism</a>, according to which facts about how things could have been are made true by other <a href="/wiki/Concrete_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concrete (philosophy)">concrete</a> worlds, just as in ours, in which things are different. Other philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, have dealt with the idea of possible worlds as well. The idea of necessity is that any necessary fact is true across all <a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">possible worlds</a>. A possible fact is true in some possible world, even if not in the actual world. For example, it is possible that cats could have had two tails, or that any particular <a href="/wiki/Apple_(symbolism)" title="Apple (symbolism)">apple</a> could have not existed. By contrast, certain propositions seem necessarily true, such as <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analytic propositions</a>, e.g., "All bachelors are unmarried." The particular example of <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">analytic truth</a> being necessary is not universally held among philosophers. A less controversial view might be that self-identity is necessary, as it seems fundamentally incoherent to claim that for any <i><b>x</b></i>, it is not identical to itself; this is known as the <i>law of identity</i>, a putative "first principle". Aristotle describes the <i>principle of non-contradiction</i>, "It is impossible that the same quality should both belong and not belong to the same thing&#160;... This is the most certain of all principles&#160;... Wherefore they who demonstrate refer to this as an ultimate opinion. For it is by nature the source of all the other axioms."</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion_and_spirituality">Religion and spirituality</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Religion and spirituality">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a> is the study of a god or gods and the nature of the divine. Some of the primary metaphysical questions concerning religious philosophy are: whether there is a god (<a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>), many gods (<a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>), or no gods (<a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>), or whether it is unknown or unknowable if any gods exist (<a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">agnosticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">apophatic theology</a>); whether a divine entity directly intervenes in the world (<a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</a>) or its sole function is to be the first cause of the universe (<a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a>); and whether a god or gods and the world are different (as in <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a>) or are identical (as in <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>).</p>
<p>Within the standard Western philosophical tradition, theology reached its peak under the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> school of thought known as <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, which focused primarily on the metaphysical aspects of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. The works of the scholastics remain an integral part of modern philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> with key figures such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> still playing an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_nature_of_metaphysics">The nature of metaphysics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: The nature of metaphysics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Some philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Amie_Thomasson" title="Amie Thomasson">Amie Thomasson</a>, have argued that many metaphysical questions can be dissolved just by looking at the way we use words; others, such as <a href="/wiki/Ted_Sider" class="mw-redirect" title="Ted Sider">Ted Sider</a>, have argued that metaphysical questions are substantive, and that we can make progress toward answering them by comparing theories according to a range of theoretical virtues inspired by the sciences, such as simplicity and explanatory power.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History_and_schools_of_metaphysics">History and schools of metaphysics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: History and schools of metaphysics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pre-Socratic_metaphysics_in_Greece">Pre-Socratic metaphysics in Greece</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Pre-Socratic metaphysics in Greece">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The first known philosopher, according to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a> of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>. Rejecting mythological and divine explanations, he sought a single first cause or <i><a href="/wiki/Arche" title="Arche">Arche</a></i> (origin or beginning) under which all phenomena could be explained, and concluded that this first cause was in fact moisture or water. Thales also taught that the world is harmonious, has a harmonious structure, and thus is intelligible to rational understanding. Other Miletians, such as <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, also had a <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> conception of the first cause.</p>
<p>Another school was the <a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. The group was founded in the early fifth century BCE by <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>, and included <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus of Samos</a>. Methodologically, the Eleatics were broadly rationalist, and took logical standards of clarity and necessity to be the criteria of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>. Parmenides' chief doctrine was that reality is a single unchanging and universal Being. Zeno used <i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a></i>, to demonstrate the illusory nature of change and time in his <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">paradoxes</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, in contrast, made change central, teaching that "all things flow". His philosophy, expressed in brief aphorisms, is quite cryptic. For instance, he also taught the <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">unity of opposites</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> and his teacher <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a>, are known for formulating an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> for the cosmos.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes87_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes87-12">[12]</a></sup> They are considered forerunners of the scientific method.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Socrates_and_Plato">Socrates and Plato</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Socrates and Plato">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> is known for his <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> or questioning approach to philosophy rather than a positive metaphysical doctrine.</p>
<p>His pupil, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> is famous for his theory of <a href="/wiki/Platonic_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic forms">forms</a> (which he places in the mouth of Socrates in the dialogues he wrote to expound it). <a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" title="Platonic realism">Platonic realism</a> (also considered a form of idealism)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> is considered to be a solution to the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">problem of universals</a>; i.e., what particular objects have in common is that they share a specific Form which is universal to all others of their respective kind.</p>
<p>The theory has a number of other aspects:</p>
<ul>
<li>Epistemological: knowledge of the Forms is more certain than mere sensory data.</li>
<li>Ethical: The Form of the Good sets an objective standard for morality.</li>
<li>Time and Change: The world of the Forms is eternal and unchanging. Time and change belong only to the lower sensory world. "Time is a moving image of Eternity".</li>
<li>Abstract objects and mathematics: Numbers, geometrical figures, etc., exist mind-independently in the World of Forms.</li>
</ul>
<p>Platonism developed into <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>, a philosophy with a monotheistic and mystical flavour that survived well into the early Christian era.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aristotle">Aristotle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Aristotle">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Plato's pupil <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> wrote widely on almost every subject, including <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">metaphysics</a>. His solution to the problem of universals contrasts with Plato's. Whereas Platonic Forms are existentially apparent in the visible world, Aristotelian <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essences</a> "indwell" in particulars.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_Actuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Potentiality and Actuality">Potentiality and Actuality</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> are principles of a <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomy</a> which <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> used throughout his philosophical works to analyze <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">causality</a> and other issues.</p>
<p>The Aristotelian theory of change and causality stretches to <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a>: the material, formal, efficient and final. The efficient cause corresponds to what is now known as a cause <i>simpliciter</i>. Final causes are explicitly <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a>, a concept now regarded as controversial in science.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> The Matter/Form dichotomy was to become highly influential in later philosophy as the substance/essence distinction.</p>
<p>The opening arguments in Aristotle's <i>Metaphysics</i>, Book I, revolve around the senses, knowledge, experience, theory, and wisdom. The first main focus in the Metaphysics is attempting to determine how intellect "advances from sensation through memory, experience, and art, to theoretical knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> Aristotle claims that eyesight provides us with the capability to recognize and remember experiences, while sound allows us to learn.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Metaphysics_in_India">Metaphysics in India</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Metaphysics in India">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="S.C4.81.E1.B9.83khya">S?ṃkhya</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: S?ṃkhya">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><i>S?ṃkhya</i> is an ancient system of Indian philosophy based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of consciousness and matter.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> It is described as the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> It is most related to the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, and its method was most influential on the development of <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhism" title="Early Buddhism">Early Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-royper_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-royper-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<p>The S?mkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> accepts three of six <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramanas</a> (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include <i>pratyakṣa</i> (perception), <i>anum?ṇa</i> (inference) and <i>śabda</i> (<i>?ptavacana</i>, word/testimony of reliable sources).<sup id="cite_ref-Lpage9_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lpage9-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eliottjag_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jag_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jag-22">[22]</a></sup></p>
<p>Samkhya is strongly <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> S?mkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities; <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">puruṣa</a> (consciousness) and <a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">prakṛti</a> (matter). <a href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">Jiva</a> (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form.<sup id="cite_ref-sambri_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sambri-26">[26]</a></sup> This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of <i>buddhi</i> ("spiritual awareness") and <i>ahaṅk?ra</i> (ego consciousness). The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakṛti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.<sup id="cite_ref-sambri_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sambri-26">[26]</a></sup> During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called liberation, or <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a>, by the Samkhya school.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47-27">[27]</a></sup></p>
<p>The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. S?ṃkhya <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">denies</a> the <a href="/wiki/Four_causes#Final_cause" title="Four causes">final cause</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a> (God).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDasgupta1922258_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDasgupta1922258-28">[28]</a></sup> While the Samkhya school considers the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Deussen" title="Paul Deussen">Paul Deussen</a> and other scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lpfl_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpfl-30">[30]</a></sup> A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars,<sup id="cite_ref-lpfl_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpfl-30">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></p>
<p>Samkhya is known for its theory of <a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">guṇas</a> (qualities, innate tendencies).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> Guṇa, it states, are of three types: <i>sattva</i> being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; <i>rajas</i> is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and <i>tamas</i> being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three guṇas, but in different proportions. The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.<sup id="cite_ref-jamesg_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jamesg-34">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> The Samkhya theory of guṇas was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies, including Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> Samkhya's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-royper_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-royper-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ved.C4.81nta">Ved?nta</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Ved?nta">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Realization of the nature of Self-identity is the principal object of the Vedanta system of Indian metaphysics. In the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>, self-consciousness is not the first-person indexical self-awareness or the self-awareness which is self-reference without identification,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> and also not the self-consciousness which as a kind of desire is satisfied by another self-consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> It is Self-realisation; the realisation of the Self consisting of consciousness that leads all else.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
<p>The word <i>Self-consciousness</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a> means the knowledge about the existence and nature of <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>. It means the consciousness of our own real being, the primary reality.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Self-consciousness means Self-knowledge, the knowledge of Prajna i.e. of Prana which is Brahman.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> the <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatman</a> is phenomenally unknowable; it is the object of realisation. The Atman is unknowable in its essential nature; it is unknowable in its essential nature because it is the eternal subject who knows about everything including itself. The Atman is the knower and also the known.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup></p>
<p>Metaphysicians regard the Self either to be distinct from the Absolute or entirely identical with the Absolute. They have given form to three schools of thought – a) the <i>Dualistic school</i>, b) the <i>Quasi-dualistic school</i> and c) the <i>Monistic school</i>, as the result of their varying mystical experiences. <a href="/wiki/Prakrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakrti">Prakrti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>, when treated as two separate and distinct aspects form the basis of the Dualism of the <a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara Upanishad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Quasi-dualism is reflected in the Vaishnavite-monotheism of <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a> and the absolute Monism, in the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
<p>Self-consciousness is the Fourth state of consciousness or <i>Turiya</i>, the first three being <i>Vaisvanara</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taijasa" title="Taijasa">Taijasa</a></i> and <i>Prajna</i>. These are the four states of individual consciousness.</p>
<p>There are three distinct stages leading to Self-realisation. The First stage is in mystically apprehending the glory of the Self within us as though we were distinct from it. The Second stage is in identifying the "I-within" with the Self, that we are in essential nature entirely identical with the pure Self. The Third stage is in realising that the <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a> is <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, that there is no difference between the Self and the Absolute. The Fourth stage is in realising "I am the Absolute" - <i><a href="/wiki/Aham_Brahman_Asmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aham Brahman Asmi">Aham Brahman Asmi</a></i>. The Fifth stage is in realising that Brahman is the "All" that exists, as also that which does not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scholasticism_and_the_Middle_Ages">Scholasticism and the Middle Ages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Scholasticism and the Middle Ages">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Between about 1100 and 1500, philosophy as a discipline took place as part of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic church">Catholic church</a>'s teaching system, known as <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. Scholastic philosophy took place within an established framework blending Christian theology with Aristotelian teachings. Although fundamental orthodoxies could not be challenged, there were nonetheless deep metaphysical disagreements, particularly over the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">problem of universals</a>, which engaged <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Abelard" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Abelard">Pierre Abelard</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> is remembered for his principle of ontological parsimony.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rationalism_and_Continental_Rationalism">Rationalism and Continental Rationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Rationalism and Continental Rationalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></div>
<p>In the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries), the system-building <i>scope</i> of philosophy is often linked to the rationalist <i>method</i> of philosophy, that is the technique of deducing the nature of the world by pure reason. The scholastic concepts of substance and accident were employed.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> proposed in his <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a> a plurality of non-interacting substances.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> is famous for his <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a> of material and mental substances.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a> believed reality was a <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">single substance</a> of God-or-nature.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="British_empiricism">British empiricism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: British empiricism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/British_empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="British empiricism">British empiricism</a> marked something of a reaction to rationalist and system-building philosophy, or <i>speculative</i> metaphysics as it was pejoratively termed. The sceptic <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> famously declared that most metaphysics should be consigned to the flames (see below). Hume was notorious among his contemporaries as one of the first philosophers to openly doubt religion, but is better known now for his <a href="/wiki/David_Hume#Causation" title="David Hume">critique of causality</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> were less sceptical, embracing a more cautious style of metaphysics based on realism, <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> and science. Other philosophers, notably <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> were led from empiricism to idealistic metaphysics.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Kant">Kant</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Kant">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> attempted a grand synthesis and revision of the trends already mentioned: scholastic philosophy, systematic metaphysics, and skeptical empiricism, not to forget the burgeoning science of his day. As did the systems builders, he had an <a href="/wiki/Kantian_architectonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantian architectonics">overarching framework</a> in which all questions were to be addressed. Like Hume, who famously woke him from his 'dogmatic slumbers', he was suspicious of metaphysical speculation, and also places much emphasis on the limitations of the human mind.</p>
<p>Kant saw rationalist philosophers as aiming for a kind of metaphysical knowledge he defined as the <i><a href="/wiki/Analytical-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical-synthetic distinction">synthetic apriori</a></i>—that is knowledge that does not come from the senses (it is <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a>) but is nonetheless about reality (synthetic). Inasmuch as it is about reality, it differs from abstract mathematical propositions (which he terms analytical apriori), and being apriori it is distinct from empirical, scientific knowledge (which he terms synthetic aposteriori). The only synthetic apriori knowledge we can have is of how our minds organise the data of the senses; that organising framework is space and time, which for Kant have no mind-independent existence, but nonetheless operate uniformly in all humans. Apriori knowledge of space and time is all that remains of metaphysics as traditionally conceived. There <i>is</i> a reality beyond sensory data or phenomena, which he calls the realm of <a href="/wiki/Noumena" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumena">noumena</a>; however, we cannot know it as it is in itself, but only as it appears to us. He allows himself to speculate that the origins of God, morality, and free will <i>might</i> exist in the noumenal realm, but these possibilities have to be set against its basic unknowability for humans. Although he saw himself as having disposed of metaphysics, in a sense, he has generally been regarded in retrospect as having a metaphysics of his own.</p>
<p>Nineteenth century philosophy was overwhelmingly influenced by Kant and his successors. <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Fichte">Fichte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> all purveyed their own panoramic versions of <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a>, Kant's own caution about metaphysical speculation, and <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason#The_Refutation_of_Idealism" title="Critique of Pure Reason">refutation of idealism</a>, having fallen by the wayside. The idealistic impulse continued into the early twentieth century with <a href="/wiki/British_idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="British idealist">British idealists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>.</p>
<p>Followers of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> took Hegel's dialectic view of history and <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">re-fashioned it as materialism</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_analytical_philosophy_and_positivism">Early analytical philosophy and positivism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Early analytical philosophy and positivism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>During the period when idealism was dominant in philosophy, science had been making great advances. The arrival of a new generation of scientifically minded philosophers led to a sharp decline in the popularity of idealism during the 1920s.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Analytical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical philosophy">Analytical philosophy</a> was spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>. Russell and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> tried to compromise between idealism and materialism with the theory of <a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</a>.</p>
<p>The early to mid twentieth century philosophy also saw a trend to reject metaphysical questions as meaningless. The driving force behind this tendency was the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> as espoused by the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a>.</p>
<p>At around the same time, the American pragmatists were steering a middle course between materialism and idealism. System-building metaphysics, with a fresh inspiration from science, was revived by <a href="/wiki/A._N._Whitehead" class="mw-redirect" title="A. N. Whitehead">A. N. Whitehead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Continental_philosophy">Continental philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Continental philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The forces that shaped analytical philosophy—the break with idealism, and the influence of science—were much less significant outside the English speaking world, although there was a shared turn toward language. Continental philosophy continued in a trajectory from post Kantianism.</p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> of Husserl and others was intended as a collaborative project for the investigation of the features and structure of consciousness common to all humans, in line with Kant's basing his synthetic apriori on the uniform operation of consciousness. It was officially neutral with regards to ontology, but was nonetheless to spawn a number of metaphysical systems. <a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a>'s concept of <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a> would become widely influential, including on analytical philosophy.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i>, saw himself as re-focusing on Being-qua-being, introducing the novel concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i> in the process. Classing himself an <a href="/wiki/Existentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialist">existentialist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sartre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sartre">Sartre</a> wrote an extensive study of <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i>.</p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">speculative realism</a> movement marks a return to full blooded realism.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Process_metaphysics">Process metaphysics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Process metaphysics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a></div>
<p>There are two fundamental aspects of everyday experience: change and persistence. Until recently, the Western philosophical tradition has arguably championed substance and persistence, with some notable exceptions however. According to process thinkers, novelty, flux and accident do matter, and sometimes they constitute the ultimate reality.</p>
<p>In a broad sense, process metaphysics is as old as Western philosophy, with figures such as Heraclitus, Plotinus, Duns Scotus, Leibniz, David Hume, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling, Gustav Theodor Fechner, Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg, Charles Renouvier, Karl Marx, Ernst Mach, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Émile Boutroux, Henri Bergson, Samuel Alexander and Nicolas Berdyaev. It seemingly remains an open question whether major "Continental" figures such as the late Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, or Jacques Derrida should be included.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup></p>
<p>In a strict sense, process metaphysics may be limited to the works of a few founding fathers: G. W. F. Hegel, Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, Henri Bergson, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">A. N. Whitehead</a>, and John Dewey. From a European perspective, there was a very significant and early Whiteheadian influence on the works of outstanding scholars such as Émile Meyerson (1859–1933), Louis Couturat (1868–1914), Jean Wahl (1888–1974), Robin George Collingwood (1889–1943), Philippe Devaux (1902–1979), Hans Jonas (1903–1993), Dorothy M. Emmett (1904–2000), Maurice Merleau Ponty (1908–1961), Enzo Paci (1911–1976), Charlie Dunbar Broad (1887–1971), Wolfe Mays (1912–), Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003), Jules Vuillemin (1920–2001), Jean Ladrière (1921–), Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995), Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–), and Reiner Wiehl (1929–2010).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Later_analytical_philosophy">Later analytical philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Later analytical philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>While early analytic philosophy tended to reject metaphysical theorizing, under the influence of logical positivism, it was revived in the second half of the twentieth century. Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David K. Lewis</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Armstrong</a> developed elaborate theories on a range of topics such as universals, causation, possibility and necessity and abstract objects. However, the focus of analytical philosophy generally is away from the construction of all-encompassing systems and toward close analysis of individual ideas.</p>
<p>Among the developments that led to the revival of metaphysical theorizing were <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine's</a> attack on the <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analytic–synthetic distinction</a>, which was generally taken to undermine <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap's</a> distinction between existence questions internal to a framework and those external to it.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<p>The philosophy of fiction, the problem of empty names, and the debate over existence's status as a property have all risen out of relative obscurity to become central concerns, while perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of time">philosophy of time</a> have had new life breathed into them.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> <span id="The_value_and_future_of_metaphysics"></span></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Rejections_of_metaphysics">Rejections of metaphysics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Rejections of metaphysics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>A number of individuals have suggested that much of metaphysics should be rejected. In the eighteenth century, David Hume took an extreme position, arguing that all genuine knowledge involves either mathematics or matters of fact and that metaphysics, which goes beyond these, is worthless. He concludes his <i><a href="/wiki/Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding" class="mw-redirect" title="Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding">Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</a></i> with the statement:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, <i>Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?</i> No. <i>Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?</i> No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> endorsed Hume's position; Carnap quoted the passage above.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> They argued that metaphysical statements are neither true nor false but meaningless since, according to their <a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verifiability theory of meaning</a>, a statement is meaningful only if there can be empirical evidence for or against it. Thus, while Ayer rejected the monism of Spinoza, noted <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Mind_and_matter" title="Metaphysics">above</a>, he avoided a commitment to <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</a>, the contrary position, by holding both views to be without meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> Carnap took a similar line with the controversy over the reality of the external world.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
<p>Thirty-three years after Hume's <i>Enquiry</i> appeared, Immanuel Kant published his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. Although he followed Hume in rejecting much of previous metaphysics, he argued that there was still room for some <i><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">synthetic a priori</a></i> knowledge, concerned with matters of fact yet obtainable independent of experience. These included fundamental structures of space, time, and causality. He also argued for the freedom of the will and the existence of "things in themselves", the ultimate (but unknowable) objects of experience.</p>
<p>The logical atomist Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced the concept that metaphysics could be influenced by theories of <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>, via <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a>, vis. a world composed of "atomical facts".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup></p>
<p>Arguing against such rejections, the Scholastic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a> has observed that Hume's critique of metaphysics, and specifically <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_fork" title="Hume's fork">Hume's fork</a>, is "notoriously self-refuting".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Feser argues that Hume's fork itself is not a conceptual truth and is not empirically testable.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Metaphysics_in_science">Metaphysics in science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Metaphysics in science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Much recent work has been devoted to analyzing the role of metaphysics in scientific theorizing. <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Alexandre Koyré</a> led this movement, declaring in his book <i>Metaphysics and Measurement</i>, "It is not by following experiment, but by outstripping experiment, that the scientific mind makes progress."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a> maintained that all scientific theories have a metaphysical "hard core" essential for the generation of hypotheses and theoretical assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Thus, according to Lakatos, "scientific changes are connected with vast cataclysmic metaphysical revolutions."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>An example from biology of Lakatos' thesis: <a href="/wiki/David_Hull" title="David Hull">David Hull</a> has argued that changes in the ontological status of the species concept have been central in the development of biological thought from <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> through <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>. Darwin's ignorance of metaphysics made it more difficult for him to respond to his critics because he could not readily grasp the ways in which their underlying metaphysical views differed from his own.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup></p>
<p>In physics, new metaphysical ideas have arisen in connection with <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, where subatomic particles arguably do not have the same sort of individuality as the particulars with which philosophy has traditionally been concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> Also, adherence to a deterministic metaphysics in the face of the challenge posed by the quantum-mechanical <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a> led physicists such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> to propose <a href="/wiki/Hidden_variable_theory" title="Hidden variable theory">alternative theories</a> that retained determinism.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">A. N. Whitehead</a> is famous for creating a metaphysics inspired by electromagnetism and special relativity.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup></p>
<p>In chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis">Gilbert Newton Lewis</a> addressed the nature of motion, arguing that an electron should not be said to move when it has none of the properties of motion.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></p>
<p>Katherine Hawley notes that the metaphysics even of a widely accepted scientific theory may be challenged if it can be argued that the metaphysical presuppositions of the theory make no contribution to its predictive success.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation myth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaethics">Metaethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">Personal identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Philosophical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theology" title="Philosophical theology">Philosophical theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-BECA-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BECA_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Geisler" title="Norman Geisler">Geisler, Norman L.</a> "Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics" page 446. Baker Books, 1999.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/">Metaphysics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">What is it (that is, whatever it is that there is) like? <cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Hall, Ned (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/lewis-metaphysics/">"David Lewis's Metaphysics"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2012 ed.). Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=David+Lewis%27s+Metaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Ned&amp;rft.aulast=Hall&amp;rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.edition=Fall+2012&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2012%2Fentries%2Flewis-metaphysics%2F&amp;rft.pub=Center+for+the+Study+of+Language+and+Information%2C+Stanford+University&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/metaphysician">Random House Dictionary Online</a></i>&#160;– <i>metaphysician</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Peter_Gay_pp._132-141-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Gay_pp._132-141_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Gay, <i>The Enlightenment</i>, vol. 1 (<i>The Rise of Modern Paganism</i>), Chapter 3, Section II, pp. 132–141.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the English language, the word comes by way of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> <i>metaphysica</i>, the neuter plural of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a> <i>metaphysika</i>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=metaphysics">[1]</a> Various dictionaries trace its first appearance in English to the mid-sixteenth century, although in some cases as early as 1387.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=me">[2]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" />&#160;<cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "<a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Metaphysics" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Metaphysics&amp;rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Griswold, Charles L. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=XU5atV1nfukC&amp;dq=platonic+writings+griswold&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;q="><i>Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings</i></a>. Penn State Press. p.&#160;237. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780271021379" title="Special:BookSources/9780271021379">9780271021379</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Griswold&amp;rft.btitle=Platonic+Writings%2FPlatonic+Readings&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DXU5atV1nfukC%26dq%3Dplatonic%2Bwritings%2Bgriswold%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26q%3D&amp;rft.isbn=9780271021379&amp;rft.pages=237&amp;rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prometheusbooks.com">"Metaphysics: The Key Issues from a Realistic Perspective"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-372-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-372-2">978-1-59102-372-2</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 2,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Nicholas+Rescher&amp;rft.btitle=Metaphysics%3A+The+Key+Issues+from+a+Realistic+Perspective&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prometheusbooks.com&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-59102-372-2&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blum, Paul Richard (2010). <i>Philosophy of the Religion in the Renaissance</i>. Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. p.&#160;89. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0781-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0781-6">978-0-7546-0781-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Blum%2C+Paul+Richard&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+the+Religion+in+the+Renaissance&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0781-6&amp;rft.pages=89&amp;rft.place=Surrey%2C+England&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing+Limited&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Chalmers, David; Manley, David; Wasserman, Ryan (2009). <i>Metametaphysics</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.aulast=Chalmers&amp;rft.au=Manley%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Wasserman%2C+Ryan&amp;rft.btitle=Metametaphysics&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Barnes87-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barnes87_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Barnes">Barnes</a> (1987).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As universals were considered by Plato to be <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">ideal forms</a>, this stance is confusingly also called <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a>. This should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical idealism">Idealism</a>, as presented by philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>: as Platonic <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstractions</a> are not spatial, temporal, or mental they are not compatible with the later Idealism's emphasis on mental existence.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The words "potentiality" and "actuality" are one set of translations from the original Greek terms of Aristotle. Other translations (including Latin) and alternative Greek terms are sometimes used in scholarly work on the subject.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chronicle.com/article/Where-Thomas-Nagel-Went-Wrong/139129">"Where Thomas Nagel Went Wrong"</a>. <i>The Chronicle of Higher Education</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Where+Thomas+Nagel+Went+Wrong&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchronicle.com%2Farticle%2FWhere-Thomas-Nagel-Went-Wrong%2F139129&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKeon, R. (1941). Metaphysics. In The Basic Works of Aristotle (p. 682). New York: Random House.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><br />
"Samkhya", Webster's College Dictionary (2010), Random House, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375407413" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-375-40741-3</a>, Quote: "<b>Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy stressing the reality and duality of spirit and matter</b>."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415648875" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5</a>, pages&#160;43–46</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-royper-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-royper_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-royper_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al.), Ashgate, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754633013" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3</a>, pages&#160;149–158</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Lpage9-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lpage9_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p.&#160;9</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-eliottjag-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_21-0">^</a></b></span>
<ul>
<li><span class="reference-text">Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion&#160;: Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815336112" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2</a>, pages&#160;245–248;</span></li>
<li><span class="reference-text">John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791430675" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5</a>, page 238</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-jag-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jag_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791430675" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5</a>, page 238</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p.&#160;264</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen_Gupta1986">Sen Gupta 1986</a>, p.&#160;6</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957">Radhakrishnan &amp; Moore 1957</a>, p.&#160;89</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-sambri-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sambri_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sambri_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520526/Samkhya">Samkhya - Hinduism</a> Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical S?ṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120805033" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3</a>, pages&#160;36–47</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDasgupta1922258-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDasgupta1922258_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDasgupta1922">Dasgupta 1922</a>, p.&#160;258.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415648875" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5</a>, page 39</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-lpfl-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lpfl_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpfl_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120832329" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9</a>, pages&#160;38–39</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415648875" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5</a>, page 39, 41</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486417929" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-486-41792-9</a>, pages&#160;56–58</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical S?ṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120805033" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3</a>, pages&#160;154–206</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-jamesg-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jamesg_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823931798" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8</a>, page 265</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T Bernard (1999), <i>Hindu Philosophy</i>, Motilal Banarsidass, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120813731" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1</a>, pages 74–76</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alex Wayman (1962), Buddhist Dependent Origination and the Samkhya gunas, Ethnos, Volume 27, Issue 1-4, pages&#160;14–22, <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00141844.1962.9980914">10.1080/00141844.1962.9980914</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Andrew Brook. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h6XG5Dg7dUUC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Self-consciousness&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=Bd_aUIqMKoezrAeX5YH4Aw&amp;ved=0CDcQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&amp;q=Self-consciousness&amp;f=false"><i>Self-Reference and Self-awareness</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing Co. p.&#160;9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Andrew+Brook&amp;rft.btitle=Self-Reference+and+Self-awareness&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh6XG5Dg7dUUC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DSelf-consciousness%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DBd_aUIqMKoezrAeX5YH4Aw%26ved%3D0CDcQ6AEwATgK%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DSelf-consciousness%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=9&amp;rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Robert B. Pippin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NyZOfjkKfpsC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Self-consciousness&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=Bd_aUIqMKoezrAeX5YH4Aw&amp;ved=0CEgQ6AEwBDgK"><i>Hegel's concept of Self-consciouness</i></a>. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. p.&#160;12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Robert+B.+Pippin&amp;rft.btitle=Hegel%27s+concept+of+Self-consciouness&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNyZOfjkKfpsC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DSelf-consciousness%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DBd_aUIqMKoezrAeX5YH4Aw%26ved%3D0CEgQ6AEwBDgK&amp;rft.pages=12&amp;rft.pub=Uitgeverij+Van+Gorcum&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">F.Max Muller. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-dq1_WC-Y5gC&amp;pg=PA46&amp;dq=Self-consciousness+in+Upanishads&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=m-PaUOLwJo-GrAew14DoDw&amp;ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=Self-consciousness%20in%20Upanishads&amp;f=false"><i>The Upanishads</i></a>. Wordsworth Editions. p.&#160;46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=F.Max+Muller&amp;rft.btitle=The+Upanishads&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-dq1_WC-Y5gC%26pg%3DPA46%26dq%3DSelf-consciousness%2Bin%2BUpanishads%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3Dm-PaUOLwJo-GrAew14DoDw%26ved%3D0CDIQ6AEwAA%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DSelf-consciousness%2520in%2520Upanishads%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=46&amp;rft.pub=Wordsworth+Editions&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8WknTKS-RYC&amp;pg=PA12&amp;dq=Self-consciousness+in+Upanishads&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=m-PaUOLwJo-GrAew14DoDw&amp;ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=Self-consciousness%20in%20Upanishads&amp;f=false"><i>Theosophy of the Upanishads 1896</i></a>. Kessinger Publishing Co. p.&#160;12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.btitle=Theosophy+of+the+Upanishads+1896&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY8WknTKS-RYC%26pg%3DPA12%26dq%3DSelf-consciousness%2Bin%2BUpanishads%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3Dm-PaUOLwJo-GrAew14DoDw%26ved%3D0CD8Q6AEwAg%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DSelf-consciousness%2520in%2520Upanishads%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=12&amp;rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Epiphanius Wilson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h0OyiQte_kUC&amp;pg=PA170&amp;dq=Self-consciousness+in+Upanishads&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=m-PaUOLwJo-GrAew14DoDw&amp;ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=Self-consciousness%20in%20Upanishads&amp;f=false"><i>Sacred Books of the East</i></a>. Cosimo Inc. p.&#160;169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Epiphanius+Wilson&amp;rft.btitle=Sacred+Books+of+the+East&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh0OyiQte_kUC%26pg%3DPA170%26dq%3DSelf-consciousness%2Bin%2BUpanishads%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3Dm-PaUOLwJo-GrAew14DoDw%26ved%3D0CDkQ6AEwAQ%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DSelf-consciousness%2520in%2520Upanishads%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=169&amp;rft.pub=Cosimo+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu"><i>The constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy</i></a>. Mubai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.&#160;198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Ramachandra+Dattatrya+Ranade&amp;rft.btitle=The+constructive+survey+of+Upanishadic+philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FA.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu&amp;rft.pages=198&amp;rft.place=Mubai&amp;rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Warren Mathews. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l_DdHf43iwoC&amp;pg=PA73&amp;lpg=PA73&amp;dq=dualism+in+the+upanishads&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=e2mTvHiD7M&amp;sig=3mYVHCymWz-6ojoK3VZHtk3Q40I&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=w-3aULSvEouzrAf8n4D4Cw&amp;sqi=2&amp;ved=0CEwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&amp;q=dualism%20in%20the%20upanishads&amp;f=false"><i>World Religions</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p.&#160;73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Warren+Mathews&amp;rft.btitle=World+Religions&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl_DdHf43iwoC%26pg%3DPA73%26lpg%3DPA73%26dq%3Ddualism%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bupanishads%26source%3Dbl%26ots%3De2mTvHiD7M%26sig%3D3mYVHCymWz-6ojoK3VZHtk3Q40I%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3Dw-3aULSvEouzrAf8n4D4Cw%26sqi%3D2%26ved%3D0CEwQ6AEwAw%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Ddualism%2520in%2520the%2520upanishads%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=73&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Alfred Bloom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KCYMqPcW4M8C&amp;pg=PA249&amp;dq=Quasi-dualism+in+the+upanishads&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=_O_aUKrTDIbtrQeIs4GIBA&amp;ved=0CEAQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=Quasi-dualism%20in%20the%20upanishads&amp;f=false"><i>Living in Amida's Universal Vow</i></a>. World Wisdom Inc. p.&#160;249.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Alfred+Bloom&amp;rft.btitle=Living+in+Amida%27s+Universal+Vow&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKCYMqPcW4M8C%26pg%3DPA249%26dq%3DQuasi-dualism%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bupanishads%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D_O_aUKrTDIbtrQeIs4GIBA%26ved%3D0CEAQ6AEwAg%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DQuasi-dualism%2520in%2520the%2520upanishads%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=249&amp;rft.pub=World+Wisdom+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu"><i>The constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy</i></a>. Mubai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.&#160;203.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Ramachandra+Dattatrya+Ranade&amp;rft.btitle=The+constructive+survey+of+Upanishadic+philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FA.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu&amp;rft.pages=203&amp;rft.place=Mubai&amp;rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chromatika.academia.edu/MichelWeber">After Whitehead: Rescher on Process Metaphysics</a>, Frankfurt / Paris / Lancaster, ontos verlag, 2004, p. 46.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chromatika.academia.edu/MichelWeber">After Whitehead: Rescher on Process Metaphysics</a>, Frankfurt / Paris / Lancaster, ontos verlag, 2004, p. 45.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Yablo and A. Gallois, "Does Ontology Rest on a Mistake?", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes, Vol. 72, (1998), pp. 229–261, 263–283 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mit.edu/%7Eyablo/om.pdf">first part</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Everett, Anthony and Thomas Hofweber (eds.) (2000), <i>Empty Names, Fiction and the Puzzles of Non-Existence.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Inwagen, Peter, and Dean Zimmerman (eds.) (1998), <i>Metaphysics: The Big Questions.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume, David</a> (1748). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/david_hume/human_understanding.html"><i>An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</i></a>. §132.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Hume%2C+David&amp;rft.btitle=An+Enquiry+Concerning+Human+Understanding&amp;rft.date=1748&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infidels.org%2Flibrary%2Fhistorical%2Fdavid_hume%2Fhuman_understanding.html&amp;rft.pages=%A7132&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap, Rudolf</a> (1935). "The Rejection of Metaphysics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150114004813/http://philosophy.ru/edu/ref/sci/carnap.html"><i>Philosophy and Logical Syntax</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.ru/edu/ref/sci/carnap.html">the original</a> on January 14, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=The+Rejection+of+Metaphysics&amp;rft.au=Carnap%2C+Rudolf&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophy+and+Logical+Syntax&amp;rft.date=1935&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.ru%2Fedu%2Fref%2Fsci%2Fcarnap.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer, A. J.</a> (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ia600306.us.archive.org/15/items/AlfredAyer/LanguageTruthAndLogic_text.pdf"><i>Language, Truth and Logic</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Victor Gollantz. p.&#160;22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Ayer&amp;rft.btitle=Language%2C+Truth+and+Logic&amp;rft.date=1936&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fia600306.us.archive.org%2F15%2Fitems%2FAlfredAyer%2FLanguageTruthAndLogic_text.pdf&amp;rft.pages=22&amp;rft.pub=Victor+Gollantz&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap, Rudolf</a> (1928). <i>Der Logische Aufbau der Welt</i>. Trans. 1967 by Rolf A. George as <i>The Logical Structure of the World</i>. University of California Press. pp.&#160;333f. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-01417-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-01417-0">0-520-01417-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Rudolf&amp;rft.aulast=Carnap&amp;rft.btitle=Der+Logische+Aufbau+der+Welt&amp;rft.date=1928&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-520-01417-0&amp;rft.pages=333f&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWittgenstein.2C_Ludwig1922" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein, Ludwig</a> (1922), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5740"><i>Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Wittgenstein%2C+Ludwig&amp;rft.btitle=Tractatus+Logico-Philosophicus&amp;rft.date=1922&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F5740&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wittgenstein, Ludwig. "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus". Major Works: <i>Selected Philosophical Writings</i>. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2009.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Feser, Edward (2014). <i>Scholastic Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction</i>. p.&#160;302. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86838-544-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86838-544-1">978-3-86838-544-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward&amp;rft.aulast=Feser&amp;rft.btitle=Scholastic+Metaphysics%3A+A+Contemporary+Introduction&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-86838-544-1&amp;rft.pages=302&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Koyré, Alexandre (1968). <i>Metaphysics and Measurement</i>. Harvard University Press. p.&#160;80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexandre&amp;rft.aulast=Koyr%C3%A9&amp;rft.btitle=Metaphysics+and+Measurement&amp;rft.date=1968&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=80&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Brekke, John S. (1986). "Scientific Imperatives in Social Work Research: Pluralism Is Not Skepticism". <i>Social Service Review</i> <b>60</b> (4): 538–554. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F644398">10.1086/644398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Imperatives+in+Social+Work+Research%3A+Pluralism+Is+Not+Skepticism&amp;rft.aufirst=John+S.&amp;rft.aulast=Brekke&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F644398&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Social+Service+Review&amp;rft.pages=538-554&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=60" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Lakatos, Imre</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/lehre/pmo/eng/Lakatos-Falsification.pdf">"Science: reason or religion"</a>. Section 1 of "Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programs" in Imre Lakatos &amp; Alan Musgrave, <i>Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521078261" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-07826-1</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/David_Hull" title="David Hull">Hull, David</a> (1967). "The Metaphysics of Evolution". <i>British Journal for the History of Science</i> <b>3</b> (4): 309–337. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007087400002892">10.1017/s0007087400002892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=The+Metaphysics+of+Evolution&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.aulast=Hull&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0007087400002892&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&amp;rft.pages=309-337&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=3" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Arenhart, Jonas R. B. (2012). "Ontological frameworks for scientific theories". <i>Foundations of Science</i> <b>17</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10699-012-9288-5">10.1007/s10699-012-9288-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Ontological+frameworks+for+scientific+theories&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonas+R.+B.&amp;rft.aulast=Arenhart&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10699-012-9288-5&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Foundations+of+Science&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=17" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawking.org.uk/does-god-play-dice.html">"Does God play dice?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.au=Hawking%2C+Stephen&amp;rft.btitle=Does+God+play+dice%3F&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawking.org.uk%2Fdoes-god-play-dice.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Ronny Desmet and Michel Weber (edited by), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279940/Whitehead._The_Algebra_of_Metaphysics">Whitehead. The Algebra of Metaphysics. Applied Process Metaphysics Summer Institute Memorandum</a></i>, Louvain-la-Neuve, Éditions Chromatika, 2010 (<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782930517087" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-2-930517-08-7</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rodebush, Worth H. (1929). "The electron theory of valence". <i>Chemical Reviews</i> (American Chemical Society) <b>5</b> (4): 509–531. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr60020a007">10.1021/cr60020a007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=The+electron+theory+of+valence&amp;rft.aufirst=Worth+H.&amp;rft.aulast=Rodebush&amp;rft.date=1929&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcr60020a007&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Reviews&amp;rft.pages=509-531&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=5" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Hawley, Katherine (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~kjh5/OnlinePapers/ScienceAsAGuideToMetaphysics.pdf">"Science as a Guide to Metaphysics?"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Synthese</i> (Springer Netherlands) <b>149</b> (3): 451–470. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-005-0569-1">10.1007/s11229-005-0569-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-7857">0039-7857</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Science+as+a+Guide+to+Metaphysics%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=Katherine&amp;rft.aulast=Hawley&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.st-andrews.ac.uk%2F~kjh5%2FOnlinePapers%2FScienceAsAGuideToMetaphysics.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-005-0569-1&amp;rft.issn=0039-7857&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Synthese&amp;rft.pages=451-470&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=149" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book">Assiter, Alison (2009). <i>Kierkegaard, metaphysics and political theory unfinished selves</i>. London New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9831-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9831-1">978-0-8264-9831-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Alison&amp;rft.aulast=Assiter&amp;rft.btitle=Kierkegaard%2C+metaphysics+and+political+theory+unfinished+selves&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8264-9831-1&amp;rft.place=London+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panayot_Butchvarov" title="Panayot Butchvarov">Butchvarov, Panayot</a> (1979). <i>Being Qua Being: A Theory of Identity, Existence and Predication</i>. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.</li>
<li>Gale, Richard M. (2002). <i>The Blackwell Guide to Metaphysics</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</li>
<li>Gay, Peter. (1966). <i>The Enlightenment: An Interpretation</i> (2 vols.). New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company.</li>
<li>Harris, E. E. (1965). <i>The Foundations of Metaphysics in Science</i>. London: George Allen and Unwin.</li>
<li>Harris, E. E. (2000). <i>The Restitution of Metaphysics</i>. New York: Humanity Books.</li>
<li>Heisenberg, Werner (1958), "Atomic Physics and Causal Law," from <i>The Physicist's Conception of Nature</i></li>
<li>Kim, J. and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a> Ed. (1999). <i>Metaphysics: An Anthology</i>. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.</li>
<li>Kim, J. and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a>, Ed. (2000). <i>A Companion to Metaphysics</i>. Malden Massachusetts, Blackwell, Publishers.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koons" title="Robert Koons">Koons, Robert C.</a> and Pickavance, Timothy H. (2015), <i>Metaphysics: The Fundamentals</i>. Wiley-Blackwell.</li>
<li>Le Poidevin R. &amp; al. eds. (2009). <i>The Routledge Companion to Metaphysics</i>. New York, Routledge.</li>
<li>Loux, M. J. (2006). <i>Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction</i> (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.</li>
<li>Lowe, E. J. (2002). <i>A Survey of Metaphysics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li>
<li>Tuomas E. Tahko (2015). <i>An Introduction to Metametaphysics</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">The London Philosophy Study Guide</a> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/L&amp;M.htm">Logic &amp; Metaphysics</a>.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2350">Metaphysics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Inwagen, Peter van</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics">"Metaphysics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Metaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter+van&amp;rft.aulast=Inwagen&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmetaphysics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/category/m-and-e/metaphysics/">"Metaphysics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetaphysics&amp;rft.atitle=Metaphysics&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fcategory%2Fm-and-e%2Fmetaphysics%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/377923/metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/themetaphysicsoforigin/home/">The Metaphysics of Origin by A.D. Toms</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
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<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Metaphysics</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
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</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
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</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
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</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><strong class="selflink">Metaphysics</strong></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<li>Philosophy by region</li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Forms</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Actual_idealism" title="Actual idealism">Actual idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monistic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Monistic idealism">Monistic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" title="Hindu idealism">Indian idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Monistic idealism (Shaivism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Magical (thaumaturgic) idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist Idealism (consciousness-only)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Practical Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political idealism">Political idealism</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Plato's Theory of Ideas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness-only" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness-only">consciousness-only</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(philosophy)" title="Mentalism (philosophy)">mentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">panpsychism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealistic_pluralism" title="Idealistic pluralism">idealistic pluralism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealistic_Studies" title="Idealistic Studies">Idealistic Studies</a></i></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Concepts</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">Theory choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">Theory-ladenness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Metatheory_of_science" title="Category:Metatheory of science">Metatheory<br />
of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li>{<a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a>}</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Philosophy of</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">thermal and statistical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">Motion</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_environment" title="Philosophy of environment">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">Related topics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Metaphysics</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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</table>
</td>
</tr>
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<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a> by era</div>
</th>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Ancient</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurians</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Classical modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Late modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy_of_science" title="Portal:Philosophy of science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
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<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
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</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (Empirio-criticism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Rankean historical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Russian positivism (Empiriomonism)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />
in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry (1830s)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Heisenberg uncertainty principle (1927)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism#Anthropology" title="Holism">Holism in anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positivist-related debate</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1890s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit"><i>Methodenstreit</i> (economics)</a></li>
<li>1909–1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1960s&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1980s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a></li>
<li>1990s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science Wars</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1830&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1848&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1869&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1879&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Idealism and Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1886&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i></li>
<li>1927&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i></li>
<li>1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i></li>
<li>2001&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1909&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i></li>
<li>1923&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i></li>
<li>1934&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i></li>
<li>1942&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i></li>
<li>1951&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i></li>
<li>1960&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i></li>
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<li>1968&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas#Major_works" title="Jürgen Habermas">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i></li>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafisika" title="Metafisika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysik" title="Metaphysik – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="ما بعد الطبيعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="অধিবিদ?যা – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AAng-j%C3%AE-si%C5%8Dng-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hêng-jî-si?ng-ha?k – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафізіка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="М?тафізыка – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysik" title="Metaphysik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%ADsica" title="Metafísica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafyzika" title="Metafyzika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysik" title="Metafysik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysik" title="Metaphysik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Metafüüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%86%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Μεταφυσική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%ADsica" title="Metafísica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafiziko" title="Metafiziko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafisika" title="Metafisika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="متا?یزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9taphysique" title="Métaphysique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysika" title="Metafysika – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%ADsica" title="Metafísica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" title="形而上學 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%95%EC%9D%B4%EC%83%81%ED%95%99" title="형??학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Մետաֆիզիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="तत?वमीमांसा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafiziko" title="Metafiziko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafisika" title="Metafisika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysica" title="Metaphysica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumspeki" title="Frumspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafisica" title="Metafisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="מט?פיזיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9tafisika" title="Métafisika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafiz%C3%AEk" title="Metafizîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysica" title="Metaphysica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysik" title="Metaphysik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="അതിഭൗതികം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizik" title="Metafizik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%ADsica" title="Metafísica – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Метафизик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysica" title="Metafysica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत?त?वज?ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="मेताफिजिक?स – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" title="形而上学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysikk" title="Metafysikk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysikk" title="Metafysikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafisica" title="Metafisica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A4-%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE" title="ਤੱਤ-ਮੀਮਾਂਸਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizix" title="Metafizix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysik" title="Metaphysik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizyka_klasyczna" title="Metafizyka klasyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%ADsica" title="Metafísica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizic%C4%83" title="Metafizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафізіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="तत?त?वमीमांसा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitaf%C3%ACsica" title="Mitafìsica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafyzika" title="Metafyzika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="مێتا?یزیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафизика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizika" title="Metafizika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle" title="recommended article"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysiikka" title="Metafysiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafysik" title="Metafysik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapisika" title="Metapisika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மீவியற?பியல? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="อภิปรัช?า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafizik" title="Metafizik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Метафізика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ما بعد الطبیعیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%AAu_h%C3%ACnh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Siêu hình h?c – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo"><a href="//vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%BCd" title="Metafüd – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaf%C3%BC%C3%BCsiga" title="Metafüüsiga – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" title="形而上學 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafisika" title="Metafisika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7" title="מעט?פיזיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%B8" title="形而上學 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%AD%A6" title="形而上学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत?त?वज?ञान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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