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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Immanuel Kant</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">"Kant" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kant_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kant (disambiguation)">Kant (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<table class="infobox biography vcard" style="width:22em">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold"><span class="fn">Immanuel Kant</span></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="image"><img alt="Immanuel Kant (painted portrait).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" width="220" height="317" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Born</th>
<td><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1724-04-22</span>)</span>22 April 1724<br />
<span class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>)</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Died</th>
<td><span class="nowrap">12 February 1804<span style="display:none">(<span class="dday deathdate">1804-02-12</span>)</span> (aged&#160;79)</span><br />
<span class="deathplace">Königsberg, Prussia</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Residence</th>
<td>Königsberg, Prussia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Nationality</th>
<td class="category">German (Prussian)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Education</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Collegium_Fridericianum" title="Collegium Fridericianum">Collegium Fridericianum</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Alma&#160;mater</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a><br />
(MA, 1755; PhD, 1755; Dr. habil., 1770)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Era</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th-century philosophy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Region</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th>
<td class="category">
<div class="plainlist nowrap">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Institutions</th>
<td class="org"><a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Main interests</div>
</th>
<td>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Notable ideas</div>
</th>
<td>
<div class="plainlist nowrap">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">Critical philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Synthetic <i>a priori</i></a></li>
<li>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">Categorical imperative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">Hypothetical imperative</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a>"</li>
<li>The primacy of <a href="/wiki/Practical_reason" title="Practical reason">the practical</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influences</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Baumgarten" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Empiricus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Knutzen" title="Martin Knutzen">Knutzen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Nikolaus_Tetens" title="Johannes Nikolaus Tetens">Johannes Nikolaus Tetens</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Swedenborg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influenced</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Virtually all subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, notably: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Jacobi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Sigismund_Beck" title="Jakob Sigismund Beck">Beck</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Jakob_Kraus" title="Christian Jakob Kraus">Kraus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Maimon" title="Salomon Maimon">Maimon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Reinhold</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. W. Schlegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/T._W._Adorno" class="mw-redirect" title="T. W. Adorno">T. W. Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">McDowell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Guyer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/T._K._Seung" title="T. K. Seung">Seung</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pogge" title="Thomas Pogge">Pogge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Zongsan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center">Signature</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg" class="image"><img alt="Immanuel Kant signature.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg/150px-Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg.png" width="150" height="57" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg/225px-Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg/300px-Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="723" data-file-height="273" /></a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:19.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">a series</a> on</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding-bottom:0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant_foto.jpg" class="image" title="Immanuel Kant"><img alt="Immanuel Kant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kant_foto.jpg/130px-Kant_foto.jpg" width="130" height="227" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kant_foto.jpg/195px-Kant_foto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kant_foto.jpg/260px-Kant_foto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="1640" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">Major works</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;;font-style:italic;">
<div class="wraplinks">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></li>
<li>
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></div>
</li>
<li>
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; font-style:normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Answering_the_Question:_What_is_Enlightenment%3F" title="Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?">Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?</a>"</div>
</li>
<li>
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a></div>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></li>
<li>
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a></div>
</li>
<li>
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></div>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="The Metaphysics of Morals">The Metaphysics of Morals</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;">
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">Critical philosophy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Schema</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Categories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">Categorical imperative</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">Hypothetical imperative</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>"<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">People</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">J. G. Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">F. H. Jacobi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_Spir" class="mw-redirect" title="African Spir">African Spir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Tetens" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Tetens">Johannes Tetens</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer%27s_criticism_of_the_Kantian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy">Schopenhauer's criticism</a></li>
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<p><b>Immanuel Kant</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/ short 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'n' in 'no'">n</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> <small>German:</small> <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_German" title="Help:IPA for German">[ɪˈma?nu̯e?l kant]</a></span>; 22 April 1724&#160;– 12 February 1804) was a <a href="/wiki/List_of_German-language_philosophers" title="List of German-language philosophers">German philosopher</a> who is considered the central figure of <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Kant argued that fundamental concepts of the human mind structure human experience, that <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> is the source of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, that <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> arises from a faculty of disinterested <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgment</a>, that <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> are forms of our sensibility, and that the world as it is <a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing-in-itself">"in-itself"</a> is unknowable. Kant took himself to have effected a <a href="/wiki/Copernican_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernican revolution">Copernican revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, akin to <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>' reversal of the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">age-old belief</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> revolved around the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">earth</a>. His beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">political theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>.</p>
<p>Kant in his <a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">critical phase</a> sought to 'reverse' the orientation of pre-critical philosophy by showing how the traditional problems of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> can be overcome by supposing that the agreement between <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Concepts" class="mw-redirect" title="Concepts">concepts</a> we use to conceive it arises not because our mental concepts have come to passively mirror reality, but because reality must conform to the human mind's active concepts to be conceivable and at all possible for us to experience. Kant thus regarded the basic categories of the <a href="/wiki/Human_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mind">human mind</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendental</a> "<a href="/wiki/Condition_of_possibility" title="Condition of possibility">condition of possibility</a>" for any <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Plato.stanford.edu_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plato.stanford.edu-6">[6]</a></sup></p>
<p>Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_peace" title="Perpetual peace">perpetual peace</a> could be secured through universal <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="International cooperation">international cooperation</a>. He believed that this eventually will be the outcome of <a href="/wiki/Universal_history" title="Universal history">universal history</a>, although it is not rationally planned.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> The exact nature of Kant's religious ideas continue to be the subject of especially heated philosophical dispute, with viewpoints ranging from the idea that Kant was an early and radical exponent of <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> who finally exploded the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a> for God's existence, to more critical treatments epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a> who claimed that Kant had "theologian blood"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> and that Kant was merely a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Apologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Apologist">apologist</a> for traditional <a href="/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> religious belief, writing that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
<p>In Kant's major work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (<i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>, 1781),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> he attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skepticism</a> of thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>. Kant regarded himself as ending and showing the way beyond the impasse which modern philosophy had led to between <a href="/wiki/Rationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalists">rationalists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricists" class="mw-redirect" title="Empiricists">empiricists</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> and is widely held to have synthesized these two early modern traditions in his thought.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the mind shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level, all human experience shares certain essential structural features. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of <i>space</i> and <i>time</i> are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of <i>cause</i> and <i>effect</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Warburton_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warburton-13">[13]</a></sup> One important consequence of this view is that our experience of things is always of the <i>phenomenal</i> world as conveyed by our senses: we do not have direct access to things in themselves, the so-called <i>noumenal</i> world. Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i> (<i>Kritik der praktischen Vernunft</i>, 1788), the <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a></i> (<i>Die Metaphysik der Sitten</i>, 1797), which dealt with <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i> (<i>Kritik der Urteilskraft</i>, 1790), which looks at <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a>.</p>
<p>Kant aimed to resolve disputes between <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was a theme both of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy. His ideas influenced many thinkers in Germany during his lifetime, and he moved philosophy beyond the debate between the rationalists and empiricists.</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Biography"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Biography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Young_scholar"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Young scholar</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_work"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Early work</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#The_silent_decade"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">The silent decade</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Mature_work"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Mature work</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Theory_of_perception"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Theory of perception</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Categories_of_the_Faculty_of_Understanding"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Categories of the Faculty of Understanding</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Transcendental_schema_doctrine"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Transcendental schema doctrine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Moral_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Moral philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#First_formulation"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">First formulation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Second_formulation"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Second formulation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Third_formulation"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Third formulation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Religion_Within_the_Limits_of_Reason"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.4</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Religion Within the Limits of Reason</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Idea_of_freedom"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Idea of freedom</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Categories_of_freedom"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Categories of freedom</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Aesthetic_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Aesthetic philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Political_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Political philosophy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Anthropology"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Anthropology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Influence"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Influence</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Historical_influence"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical influence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Influence_on_modern_thinkers"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on modern thinkers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Personal_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Personal legacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Tomb_and_statue"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Tomb and statue</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Criticism"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#List_of_major_works"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">List of major works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Collected_works_in_German"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Collected works in German</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#References_and_further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References and further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#General_introductions_to_his_thought"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">General introductions to his thought</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Biography_and_historical_context"><span class="tocnumber">11.2</span> <span class="toctext">Biography and historical context</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Collections_of_essays"><span class="tocnumber">11.3</span> <span class="toctext">Collections of essays</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Theoretical_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">11.4</span> <span class="toctext">Theoretical philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Practical_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">11.5</span> <span class="toctext">Practical philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Aesthetics"><span class="tocnumber">11.6</span> <span class="toctext">Aesthetics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Philosophy_of_religion"><span class="tocnumber">11.7</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of religion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Perpetual_peace_and_international_relations"><span class="tocnumber">11.8</span> <span class="toctext">Perpetual peace and international relations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Other_works"><span class="tocnumber">11.9</span> <span class="toctext">Other works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Contemporary_philosophy_with_a_Kantian_influence"><span class="tocnumber">11.10</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Biography">Biography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>, Prussia (since 1946 the city of <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaliningrad Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>). His mother, Anna Regina Reuter<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> (1697–1737), was also born in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a> to a father from <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>. (Her name is sometimes erroneously given as Anna Regina Porter.) His father, Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746), was a German harness maker from <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da" title="Klaipėda">Memel</a>, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da" title="Klaipėda">Klaipėda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>). Immanuel Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> A claim which was taken as granted especially by older scholars. However, there is no evidence for it. It is more likely that the Kants got their name from the village of Kantwaggen (today part of <a href="/wiki/Priekul%C4%97,_Lithuania" title="Priekulė, Lithuania">Priekulė</a>) and were of <a href="/wiki/Curonians" title="Curonians">Curonian</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Kant was the fourth of nine children (four of them reached adulthood).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Baptized 'Emanuel', he changed his name to 'Immanuel'<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> after learning <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>.</p>
<p>Young Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student. He was brought up in a <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietist</a> household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and religious instruction over mathematics and science.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Despite his religious upbringing and maintaining a belief in God, Kant was skeptical of religion in later life; various commentators have labelled him <a href="/wiki/Agnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnostic">agnostic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup></p>
<p>Common myths about Kant's personal mannerisms are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwait's introduction to his translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> It is often held that Kant lived a very strict and disciplined life, leading to an oft-repeated story that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. He never married, but seemed to have a rewarding social life — he was a popular teacher and a modestly successful author even before starting on his major philosophical works. He had a circle of friends he frequently met, among them <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Green_(merchant)" title="Joseph Green (merchant)">Joseph Green</a>, an English merchant in Königsberg .</p>
<p>A common myth is that Kant never traveled more than 16 kilometres (9.9&#160;mi) from Königsberg his whole life.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> In fact, between 1750 and 1754 he worked as a tutor (<i>Hauslehrer</i>) in Judtschen<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> (now Veselovka, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, approximately 20&#160;km) and in Groß-Arnsdorf<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> (now Jarnołtowo near Morąg (German: Mohrungen), <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, approximately 145&#160;km).</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Young_scholar">Young scholar</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Young scholar">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Kant showed a great aptitude for study at an early age. He first attended the <a href="/wiki/Collegium_Fridericianum" title="Collegium Fridericianum">Collegium Fridericianum</a> from which he graduated at the end of the summer of 1740. In 1740, aged 16, he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a>, where he spent his whole career.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> He studied the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> under <a href="/wiki/Martin_Knutzen" title="Martin Knutzen">Martin Knutzen</a> (Associate Professor of Logic and Metaphysics from 1734 until his death in 1756), a <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> who was also familiar with developments in British philosophy and science and introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. Knutzen dissuaded Kant from the theory of <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a>, which he regarded as "the pillow for the lazy mind". He also dissuaded Kant from <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, the idea that reality is purely mental, which most philosophers in the 18th century regarded in a negative light. (The theory of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> that Kant developed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> is not traditional idealism and the <i>Critique'</i>s second part even argues against traditional idealism.)</p>
<p>His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted his studies. Kant left Königsberg shortly after August 1748<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>—he would return there in August 1754.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> He became a private tutor in the towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. In 1749, he published his first philosophical work, <i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_the_True_Estimation_of_Living_Forces" title="Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces">Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces</a></i> (written in 1745–47).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_work">Early work</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Early work">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Kant is best known for his work in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics,<sup id="cite_ref-iep_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep-35">[35]</a></sup> but he made significant contributions to other disciplines. He made an important astronomical discovery about the nature of Earth's rotation, for which he won the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Berlin Academy</a> Prize in 1754.</p>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>:</p>
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<p>"Kant pointed out in the middle of last century, what had not previously been discovered by mathematicians or physical astronomers, that the frictional resistance against tidal currents on the earth's surface must cause a diminution of the earth's rotational speed. This immense discovery in Natural Philosophy seems to have attracted little attention—indeed to have passed quite unnoticed—among mathematicians, and astronomers, and naturalists, until about 1840, when the doctrine of energy began to be taken to heart."</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— Lord Kelvin, physicist, <i>1897</i></cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a>:</p>
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<p>"The sort of geological speculation to which I am now referring (geological aetiology, in short) was created as a science by that famous philosopher, Immanuel Kant, when, in 1775 [1755], he wrote his <i>General Natural History and Theory of the Celestial Bodies; or, an Attempt to Account for the Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the Universe, upon Newtonian Principles.</i>"</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— Thomas H. Huxley, <i>1869</i></cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p>In the <i>General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens</i> (<i>Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels</i>) (1755), Kant laid out the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a>, in which he deduced that the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> formed from a large cloud of gas, a <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebula</a>. Thus he tried to explain the order of the solar system, which <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> had explained as imposed from the beginning by God. Kant also correctly deduced that the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> was a large disk of stars, which he theorized also formed from a (much larger) spinning cloud of gas. He further suggested that other nebulae might also be similarly large and distant disks of stars. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy: for the first time extending astronomy beyond the solar system to galactic and extragalactic realms.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup></p>
<p>From then on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. <i><a href="/wiki/The_False_Subtlety_of_the_Four_Syllogistic_Figures" title="The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures">The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures</a></i>, a work in logic, was published in 1762. Two more works appeared the following year: <i>Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Only_Possible_Argument_in_Support_of_a_Demonstration_of_the_Existence_of_God" title="The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God">The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God</a></i>. In 1764, Kant wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i> and then was second to <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a> in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his <i>Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality</i> (often referred to as "The Prize Essay"). In 1766 Kant wrote <i>Dreams of a Spirit-Seer</i> which dealt with the writings of <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a>. On 31 March 1770, aged 45, Kant was finally appointed Full Professor of Logic and Metaphysics (<i>Professore Ordinano der Logic und Metaphysic</i>) at the University of Königsberg. In defense of this appointment, Kant wrote his <a href="/wiki/Inaugural_dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inaugural dissertation">inaugural dissertation</a> <i>De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis</i> (<i>On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World)</i>. This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of <a href="/wiki/Subreption" title="Subreption">subreption</a>, and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish.</p>
<p>The issue that vexed Kant was central to what 20th-century scholars called "the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>". The flowering of the natural sciences had led to an understanding of how data reaches the brain. Sunlight falling on an object is reflected from its surface in a way that maps the surface features (color, texture, etc.). The reflected light reaches the human eye, passes through the cornea, is focused by the lens onto the retina where it forms an image similar to that formed by light passing through a pinhole into a <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a>. The retinal cells send impulses through the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a> and then they form a mapping in the brain of the visual features of the object. The interior mapping is not the exterior object, and our belief that there is a meaningful relationship between the object and the mapping in the brain depends on a chain of reasoning that is not fully grounded. But the uncertainty aroused by these considerations, by optical illusions, misperceptions, delusions, etc., are not the end of the problems.</p>
<p>Kant saw that the mind could not function as an empty container that simply receives data from outside. Something must be giving order to the incoming data. Images of external objects must be kept in the same sequence in which they were received. This ordering occurs through the mind's intuition of time. The same considerations apply to the mind's function of constituting <b>space</b> for ordering mappings of visual and tactile signals arriving via the already described chains of physical causation.</p>
<p>It is often claimed that Kant was a late developer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_silent_decade">The silent decade</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: The silent decade">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>At age 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher. Much was expected of him. In correspondence with his ex-student and friend <a href="/wiki/Markus_Herz" title="Markus Herz">Markus Herz</a>, Kant admitted that, in the <i>inaugural dissertation</i>, he had failed to account for the relation between our sensible and intellectual faculties—he needed to explain how we combine sensory knowledge with reasoned knowledge, these being related but very different processes. He also credited <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber" (circa 1771).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Hume had stated that experience consists only of sequences of feelings, images or sounds. Ideas such as "cause", goodness, or objects were not evident in experience, so why do we believe in the reality of these? Kant felt that reason could remove this skepticism, and he set himself to solving these problems. He did not publish any work in philosophy for the next 11 years.</p>
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Immanuel Kant</div>
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<p>Although fond of company and conversation with others, Kant isolated himself. He resisted friends' attempts to bring him out of his isolation. In 1778, in response to one of these offers by a former pupil, Kant wrote:</p>
<p>"Any change makes me apprehensive, even if it offers the greatest promise of improving my condition, and I am persuaded by this natural instinct of mine that I must take heed if I wish that the threads which the Fates spin so thin and weak in my case to be spun to any length. My great thanks, to my well-wishers and friends, who think so kindly of me as to undertake my welfare, but at the same time a most humble request to protect me in my current condition from any disturbance."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
<p>When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this <i>Critique</i> was largely ignored upon its initial publication. The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a convoluted style. It received few reviews, and these granted it no significance. Kant's former student, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> criticized it for placing reason as an entity worthy of criticism instead of considering the process of reasoning within the context of language and one's entire personality.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Similar to <a href="/wiki/Christian_Garve" title="Christian Garve">Christian Garve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Heinrich_Feder" title="Johann Georg Heinrich Feder">Johann Georg Heinrich Feder</a>, he rejected Kant's position that space and time possessed a form which could be analyzed. Additionally, Garve and Feder also faulted Kant's Critique for not explaining differences in perception of sensations.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Its density made it, as Herder said in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a>, a "tough nut to crack", obscured by "all this heavy gossamer".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Its reception stood in stark contrast to the praise Kant had received for earlier works, such as his <i>Prize Essay</i> and shorter works that preceded the first Critique. These well-received and readable tracts include one on the <a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">earthquake in Lisbon</a> that was so popular that it was sold by the page.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Prior to the change in course documented in the first Critique, his books sold well, and by the time he published <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i> in 1764 he had become a notable popular author.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> Kant was disappointed with the first Critique's reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_any_Future_Metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics</a></i> in 1783 as a summary of its main views. Shortly thereafter, Kant's friend Johann Friedrich Schultz (1739–1805) (professor of mathematics) published <i>Erläuterungen über des Herrn Professor Kant Critik der reinen Vernunft</i> (Königsberg, 1784), which was a brief but very accurate commentary on Kant's <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>.</p>
<p>Kant's reputation gradually rose through the latter portion of the 1780s, sparked by a series of important works: the 1784 essay, "<a href="/wiki/What_is_Enlightenment%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What is Enlightenment?">Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?</a>"; 1785's <i><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a></i> (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from 1786, <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_Foundations_of_Natural_Science" title="Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science">Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science</a>.</i> But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source. In 1786, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Karl Leonhard Reinhold</a> published a series of public letters on Kantian philosophy. In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the <a href="/wiki/Pantheism_Dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheism Dispute">Pantheism Dispute</a>. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jacobi" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Jacobi">Friedrich Jacobi</a> had accused the recently deceased <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of <a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a>. Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>, leading to a bitter public dispute among partisans. The controversy gradually escalated into a debate about the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason. Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mature_work">Mature work</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Mature work">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Kant published a second edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (<i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>) in 1787, heavily revising the first parts of the book. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in 1788's <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i> (known as the second <i>Critique</i>) and 1797's <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a></i>. The 1790 <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i> (the third <i>Critique</i>) applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a>.</p>
<p>In 1792, Kant's attempt to publish the Second of the four Pieces of <i><a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a></i>, in the journal <i>Berlinische Monatsschrift</i>, met with opposition from the King's <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> commission, which had been established that same year in the context of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-45">[45]</a></sup> Kant then arranged to have all four pieces published as a book, routing it through the philosophy department at the University of Jena to avoid the need for theological censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-45">[45]</a></sup> This insubordination earned him a now famous reprimand from the King.<sup id="cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-45">[45]</a></sup> When he nevertheless published a second edition in 1794, the censor was so irate that he arranged for a royal order that required Kant never to publish or even speak publicly about religion.<sup id="cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-45">[45]</a></sup> Kant then published his response to the King's reprimand and explained himself, in the preface of <i>The Conflict of the Faculties</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
<p>He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics and other topics. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in 18th-century philosophy. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy. Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. Many of Kant's most important disciples (including <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Reinhold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Sigismund_Beck" title="Jakob Sigismund Beck">Beck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>) transformed the Kantian position into increasingly radical forms of idealism. The progressive stages of revision of Kant's teachings marked the emergence of <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a>. Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799.<sup id="cite_ref-Fichte_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fichte-46">[46]</a></sup> It was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions. In 1800, a student of Kant named Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) published a manual of logic for teachers called <i>Logik</i>, which he had prepared at Kant's request. Jäsche prepared the <i>Logik</i> using a copy of a textbook in logic by Georg Freidrich Meier entitled <i>Auszug aus der Vernunftlehre</i>, in which Kant had written copious notes and annotations. The <i>Logik</i> has been considered of fundamental importance to Kant's philosophy, and the understanding of it. The great 19th-century logician <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> remarked, in an incomplete review of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kingsmill_Abbott" title="Thomas Kingsmill Abbott">Thomas Kingsmill Abbott</a>'s English translation of the introduction to <i>Logik</i>, that "Kant's whole philosophy turns upon his logic."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schirokauer_Hartman" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Schirokauer Hartman">Robert Schirokauer Hartman</a> and Wolfgang Schwarz, wrote in the translators' introduction to their English translation of the <i>Logik</i>, "Its importance lies not only in its significance for the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, the second part of which is a restatement of fundamental tenets of the <i>Logic</i>, but in its position within the whole of Kant's work."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant's health, long poor, worsened and he died at Königsberg on 12 February 1804, uttering "<i>Es ist gut</i>" ("It is good") before expiring.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> His unfinished final work was published as <i>Opus Postumum</i>.</p>
<p>Kant wrote a book discussing his theory of virtue in terms of independence which he believed was "a viable modern alternative to more familiar Greek views about virtue". This book is often criticized for its hostile tone and for not articulating his thoughts about autocracy comprehensibly. In the self-governance model of Aristotelian virtue, the non-rational part of the soul can be made to listen to reason through training. Although Kantian self-governance appears to involve "a rational crackdown on appetites and emotions" with lack of harmony between reason and emotion, Kantian virtue denies requiring "self-conquest, self-suppression, or self-silencing". They dispute that "the self-mastery constitutive of virtue is ultimately mastery over our tendency of will to give priority to appetite or emotion unregulated by duty, it does not require extirpating, suppressing, or silencing sensibility in general".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy">Philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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Immanuel Kant by <a href="/wiki/Carle_Vernet" title="Carle Vernet">Carle Vernet</a> (1758-1836)</div>
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<p>In Kant's essay "<a href="/wiki/What_is_Enlightenment%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What is Enlightenment?">Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?</a>", Kant defined the Enlightenment as an age shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> motto <i><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i> ("Dare to be wise"). Kant maintained that one ought to think autonomously, free of the dictates of external <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>. His work reconciled many of the differences between the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> traditions of the 18th century. He had a decisive impact on the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealist</a> philosophies of the 19th century. His work has also been a starting point for many 20th century philosophers.</p>
<p>Kant asserted that, because of the limitations of argumentation in the absence of irrefutable <a href="/wiki/Evidence#Evidence_in_Problems" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, no one could really know whether there is a God and an afterlife or not. For the sake of morality and as a ground for reason, Kant asserted, people are justified in believing in God, even though they could never know God's presence empirically. He explained:</p>
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<p>All the preparations of reason, therefore, in what may be called pure philosophy, are in reality directed to those three problems only [God, the soul, and freedom]. However, these three elements in themselves still hold independent, proportional, objective weight individually. Moreover, in a collective relational context; namely, to know <i>what ought to be done</i>: if the will is free, if there is a God, and if there is a future <a href="/wiki/World_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (philosophy)">world</a>. As this concerns our actions with reference to the highest aims of life, we see that the ultimate intention of nature in her wise provision was really, in the constitution of our reason, directed to moral interests only.<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A801_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A801-51">[51]</a></sup></p>
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<p>The sense of an enlightened approach and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">critical method</a> required that "If one cannot prove that a thing <i>is,</i> he may try to prove that it is <i>not.</i> If he fails to do either (as often occurs), he may still ask whether it is in his <i>interest</i> to <i>accept</i> one or the other of the alternatives hypothetically, from the theoretical or the practical point of view. Hence the question no longer is as to whether <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_peace" title="Perpetual peace">perpetual peace</a> is a real thing or not a real thing, or as to whether we may not be deceiving ourselves when we adopt the former alternative, but we must <i>act</i> on the supposition of its being real."<sup id="cite_ref-SoR_Concl_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SoR_Concl-52">[52]</a></sup> The presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was then a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler. Reason compels us to admit such a ruler, together with life in such a world, which we must consider as future life, or else all moral laws are to be considered as idle dreams... ."<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A811_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A811-53">[53]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant claimed to have created a "<a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution_(metaphor)" title="Copernican Revolution (metaphor)">Copernican revolution</a>" in philosophy. This involved two interconnected foundations of his "<a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">critical philosophy</a>":</p>
<ul>
<li>the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> and</li>
<li>the <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a> of the autonomy of practical reason.</li>
</ul>
<p>These teachings placed the active, rational human <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> at the center of the cognitive and moral worlds. Kant argued that the rational order of the world as known by science was not just the accidental accumulation of sense perceptions.</p>
<p>Conceptual unification and integration is carried out by the mind through <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> or the "categories of the understanding" operating on the perceptual manifold within <a href="/wiki/Space_and_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and time">space and time</a>. The latter are not concepts,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> but are forms of sensibility that are <i>a priori</i> necessary conditions for any possible experience. Thus the objective order of nature and the causal necessity that operates within it depend on the mind's processes, the product of the rule-based activity that Kant called, "<a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">synthesis</a>." There is much discussion among Kant scholars about the correct interpretation of this train of thought.</p>
<p>The 'two-world' interpretation regards Kant's position as a statement of epistemological limitation, that we are not able to transcend the bounds of our own mind, meaning that we cannot access the "<a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing-in-itself">thing-in-itself</a>". However, Kant also speaks of the thing in itself or <i>transcendental object</i> as a product of the (human) understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility. Following this line of thought, some interpreters have argued that the thing in itself does not represent a separate ontological domain but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone&#160;– this is known as the two-aspect view.</p>
<p>The notion of the "<a href="/wiki/Thing_in_itself" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing in itself">thing in itself</a>" was much discussed by philosophers after Kant. It was argued that because the "thing in itself" was unknowable, its existence must not be assumed. Rather than arbitrarily switching to an account that was ungrounded in anything supposed to be the "real," as did the German Idealists, another group arose to ask how our (presumably reliable) accounts of a coherent and rule-abiding universe were actually grounded. This new kind of philosophy became known as <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a>, and its founder was <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>.</p>
<p>With regard to <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, Kant argued that the source of the <a href="/wiki/Goodness_and_value_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodness and value theory">good</a> lies not in anything outside the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> subject, either in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> or given by <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, but rather is only the good will itself. A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity&#160;– understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others&#160;– as an <a href="/wiki/End_in_itself" class="mw-redirect" title="End in itself">end in itself</a> rather than (merely) as <a href="/wiki/Means_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Means (philosophy)">means</a> to other ends the individual might hold. This necessitates practical self-reflection in which we universalize our reasons.</p>
<p>These ideas have largely framed or influenced all subsequent philosophical discussion and analysis. The specifics of Kant's account generated immediate and lasting controversy. Nevertheless, his theses&#160;– that the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to its <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, that philosophy involves self-critical activity, that morality is rooted in human freedom, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles&#160;– have all had a lasting effect on subsequent philosophy.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theory_of_perception">Theory of perception</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Theory of perception">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></div>
<p>Kant defines his theory of perception in his influential 1781 work the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, which has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> in modern philosophy. Kant maintains that our understanding of the external world had its foundations not merely in experience, but in both experience and <i>a priori</i> <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>, thus offering a <i>non-empiricist critique of rationalist philosophy</i>, which is what he and others referred to as his "<a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution_(metaphor)" title="Copernican Revolution (metaphor)">Copernican revolution</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup></p>
<p>Firstly, Kant <a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">distinguishes between analytic and synthetic propositions</a>:</p>
<ol>
<li>Analytic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept; <i>e.g.</i>, "All bachelors are unmarried," or, "All bodies take up space."</li>
<li>Synthetic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept; <i>e.g.</i>, "All bachelors are happy," or, "All bodies have weight."</li>
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<p>An analytic proposition is true by nature of the meaning of the words in the sentence — we require no further knowledge than a grasp of the language to understand this proposition. On the other hand, a synthetic statement is one that tells us something about the world. The truth or falsehood of synthetic statements derives from something outside their linguistic content. In this instance, weight is not a necessary <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> of the body; until we are told the heaviness of the body we do not know that it has weight. In this case, experience of the body is required before its heaviness becomes clear. Before Kant's first Critique, empiricists (cf. <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>) and rationalists (cf. <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>) assumed that all synthetic statements required experience to be known.</p>
<p>Kant, however, contests this: he claims that elementary mathematics, like arithmetic, is synthetic <i>a priori</i>, in that its statements provide new knowledge, but knowledge that is not derived from experience. This becomes part of his over-all argument for <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>. That is, he argues that the possibility of experience depends on certain <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary and sufficient conditions">necessary conditions</a> — which he calls <i>a priori</i> forms — and that these conditions structure and hold true of the world of experience. In so doing, his main claims in the "<a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason#I._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Elements" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Transcendental Aesthetic</a>" are that mathematic judgments are synthetic <i>a priori</i> and in addition, that <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a> are not derived from experience but rather are its preconditions.</p>
<p>Once we have grasped the functions of basic arithmetic, we do not need any empirical experience to know that 100 + 100 = 200, and so it appears that arithmetic is analytic. However, that it is analytic can be disproved by considering the calculation 5 + 7 = 12: there is nothing in the numbers 5 and 7 by which the number 12 can be inferred. Thus "5 + 7" and "the cube root of 1,728" or "12" are not analytic because their reference is the same but their sense is not — the mathematical judgment "5 + 7 = 12" tells us something new about the world. It is self-evident, and undeniably <i>a priori</i>, but at the same time it is synthetic. Thus Kant proved that a proposition can be synthetic and known a priori.</p>
<p>Kant asserts that experience is based both on the perception of external objects and <i>a priori</i> knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> The external world, he writes, provides those things that we sense. But it is our mind that processes this information and gives it order, allowing us to comprehend it. Our mind supplies the conditions of space and time to experience objects. According to the "transcendental unity of apperception", the concepts of the mind (Understanding) and the perceptions or intuitions that garner information from phenomena (Sensibility) are synthesized by comprehension. Without the concepts, perceptions are nondescript; without the perceptions, concepts are meaningless — thus the famous statement, "Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions (perceptions) without concepts are blind."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant also claims that an external environment is necessary for the establishment of the self. Although Kant would want to argue that there is no empirical way of observing the self, we can see the logical necessity of the self when we observe that we can have different perceptions of the external environment over time. By uniting all of these general representations into one global representation, we can see how a transcendental self emerges. "I am therefore conscious of the identical self in regard to the manifold of the representations that are given to me in an intuition because I call them all together my representations."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Categories_of_the_Faculty_of_Understanding">Categories of the Faculty of Understanding</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Categories of the Faculty of Understanding">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Category (Kant)</a></div>
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Kant statue in <a href="/wiki/Belo_Horizonte" title="Belo Horizonte">Belo Horizonte</a>, Brazil</div>
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<p>Kant deemed it obvious that we have some objective knowledge of the world, such as, say, Newtonian physics. But this knowledge relies on <a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">synthetic</a>, <i>a priori</i> laws of nature, like causality and substance. The problem, then, is how this is possible. Kant's solution was to reason that the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)#The_subject_in_German_idealism" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> must supply laws that make experience of objects possible, and that these laws are the synthetic, <i>a priori</i> laws of nature that we know apply to all objects before we experience them. So, to deduce all these laws, Kant examined experience in general, dissecting in it what is supplied by the mind from what is supplied by the given intuitions. What has just been explicated is commonly called a transcendental reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>To begin with, Kant's distinction between the <i><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">a posteriori</a></i> being <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> and particular knowledge, and the <i>a priori</i> being universal and necessary knowledge, must be kept in mind. For if we merely connect two intuitions together in a perceiving subject, the knowledge is always subjective because it is derived <i>a posteriori,</i> when what is desired is for the knowledge to be objective, that is, for the two intuitions to refer to the object and hold good of it necessarily universally for anyone at any time, not just the perceiving subject in its current condition. What else is equivalent to objective knowledge besides the <i>a priori,</i> that is to say, universal and necessary knowledge? Nothing else, and hence before knowledge can be objective, it must be incorporated under an <i>a priori</i> category of <i>the understanding</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>For example, say a subject says, "The sun shines on the stone; the stone grows warm," which is all he perceives in perception. His judgment is contingent and holds no necessity. But if he says, "The sunshine causes the stone to warm," he subsumes the perception under the category of causality, which is not found in the perception, and necessarily synthesizes the concept sunshine with the concept heat, producing a necessarily universally true judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>To explain the categories in more detail, they are the preconditions of the construction of objects in the mind. Indeed, to even think of the sun and stone presupposes the category of subsistence, that is, substance. For the categories synthesize the random data of the sensory manifold into intelligible objects. This means that the categories are also the most abstract things one can say of any object whatsoever, and hence one can have an <i>a priori</i> cognition of the totality of all objects of experience if one can list all of them. To do so, Kant formulates another transcendental deduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>Judgments are, for Kant, the preconditions of any thought. Man thinks via judgments, so all possible judgments must be listed and the perceptions connected within them put aside, so as to make it possible to examine the moments when <i>the understanding</i> is engaged in constructing judgments. For the categories are equivalent to these moments, in that they are concepts of intuitions in general, so far as they are determined by these moments universally and necessarily. Thus by listing all the moments, one can deduce from them all of the categories.<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>One may now ask: How many possible judgments are there? Kant believed that all the possible propositions within Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogistic</a> logic are equivalent to all possible judgments, and that all the logical operators within the propositions are equivalent to the moments of the understanding within judgments. Thus he listed Aristotle's system in four groups of three: quantity (universal, particular, singular), quality (affirmative, negative, infinite), relation (categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive) and modality (problematic, assertoric, apodeictic). The parallelism with Kant's categories is obvious: quantity (unity, plurality, totality), quality (reality, negation, limitation), relation (substance, cause, community) and modality (possibility, existence, necessity).<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>The fundamental building blocks of experience, i.e. objective knowledge, are now in place. First there is the sensibility, which supplies the mind with intuitions, and then there is the understanding, which produces judgments of these intuitions and can subsume them under categories. These categories lift the intuitions up out of the subject's current state of consciousness and place them within consciousness in general, producing universally necessary knowledge. For the categories are innate in any rational being, so any intuition thought within a category in one mind is necessarily subsumed and understood identically in any mind. In other words, we filter what we see and hear.<sup id="cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prolegomena-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Transcendental_schema_doctrine">Transcendental schema doctrine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Transcendental schema doctrine">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Schema (Kant)</a></div>
<p>Kant ran into a problem with his theory that the mind plays a part in producing objective knowledge. Intuitions and categories are entirely disparate, so how can they interact? Kant's solution is the (transcendental) schema: a priori principles by which the transcendental imagination connects concepts with intuitions through time. All the principles are temporally bound, for if a concept is purely a priori, as the categories are, then they must apply for all times. Hence there are principles such as <i>substance is that which endures through time</i>, and <i>the cause must always be prior to the effect</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hackett_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hackett-62">[62]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Moral_philosophy">Moral philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Moral philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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Immanuel Kant</div>
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<p>Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: <i><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a></i> (1785),<sup id="cite_ref-Beck1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck1-63">[63]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i> (1788), and <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a></i> (1797).</p>
<p>In the <i>Groundwork</i>, Kant's method involves trying to convert our everyday, obvious, rational<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> knowledge of morality into philosophical knowledge. The latter two works followed a method of using "practical reason", which is based only on things about which reason can tell us, and not deriving any principles from experience, to reach conclusions which can be applied to the world of experience (in the second part of <i>The Metaphysic of Morals</i>).</p>
<p>Kant is known for his theory that there is a single <a href="/wiki/Moral_obligation" title="Moral obligation">moral obligation</a>, which he called the "<a href="/wiki/Categorical_Imperative" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical Imperative">Categorical Imperative</a>", and is derived from the concept of <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duty</a>. Kant defines the demands of the moral law as "categorical imperatives". Categorical imperatives are principles that are intrinsically valid; they are good in and of themselves; they must be obeyed by everyone in all situations and circumstances, if our behavior is to observe the moral law. The Categorical Imperative generates all other moral obligations, and they can be tested against it. Kant also stated that the moral means and ends can be applied to the categorical imperative, that rational beings can pursue certain "ends" using the appropriate "means". Ends based on physical needs or wants can create merely <a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">hypothetical imperatives</a>. The categorical imperative can only be based on something that is an "end in itself", that is, an end that is not a means to some other need, desire, or purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_421_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_421-65">[65]</a></sup> Kant believed that the moral law is a principle of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> itself, and is not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy, but to act on the moral law which has no other motive than "worthiness of being happy".<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A806_B834_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A806_B834-66">[66]</a></sup> Accordingly, he believed that moral obligation applies only to rational agents.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_408_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_408-67">[67]</a></sup></p>
<p>Unlike a hypothetical imperative, a categorical imperative is an unconditional obligation; that is, it has the force of an obligation regardless of our will or desires<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_420-1_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_420-1-68">[68]</a></sup> In <i>Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</i> (1785) Kant enumerated three formulations of the categorical imperative that he believed to be roughly equivalent.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_436_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_436-69">[69]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant believed that if an action is not done with the motive of duty, then it is without moral value. He thought that every action should have pure intention behind it; otherwise it was meaningless. The final result was not the most important aspect of an action, but how the person felt while carrying out the action was the time at which value was set to the result.</p>
<p>In <i>Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</i>, Kant also posited the "counter-<a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> idea that there is a difference between preferences and values, and that considerations of individual rights temper calculations of aggregate utility", a concept that is an axiom in economics:<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Everything has either a <i>price</i> or a <i>dignity</i>. Whatever has a price can be replaced by something else as its equivalent; on the other hand, whatever is above all price, and therefore admits of no equivalent, has a dignity. But that which constitutes the condition under which alone something can be an end in itself does not have mere relative worth, i.e., price, but an intrinsic worth, i.e., a dignity. (p. 53, italics in original).</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A phrase quoted by Kant, which is used to summarize the counter-utilitarian nature of his moral philosophy, is <i><a href="/wiki/Fiat_justitia,_pereat_mundus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiat justitia, pereat mundus">Fiat justitia, pereat mundus</a></i>, ("Let justice be done, though the world perish"), which he translates loosely as "Let justice reign even if all the rascals in the world should perish from it". This appears in his 1795 "<a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace</a>" ("<i><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zum_ewigen_Frieden" class="extiw" title="de:Zum ewigen Frieden">Zum ewigen Frieden. Ein philosophischer Entwurf</a></i>"), Appendix 1.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="First_formulation">First formulation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: First formulation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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Immanuel Kant introduced the <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law".</div>
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<p>The first formulation (Formula of Universal Law) of the moral imperative "requires that the maxims be chosen as though they should hold as universal <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">laws of nature</a>" .<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_436_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_436-69">[69]</a></sup> This formulation in principle has as its supreme law the creed "Always act according to that maxim whose universality as a law you can at the same time will" and is the "only condition under which a will can never come into conflict with itself [....]"<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_437_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_437-74">[74]</a></sup></p>
<p>One interpretation of the first formulation is called the "universalizability test".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> An agent's maxim, according to Kant, is his "subjective principle of human actions": that is, what the agent believes is his reason to act.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_400_429_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_400_429-76">[76]</a></sup> The universalisability test has five steps:</p>
<ol>
<li>Find the agent's maxim (i.e., an action paired with its motivation). Take for example the declaration "I will lie for personal benefit". Lying is the action; the motivation is to fulfill some sort of desire. Paired together, they form the maxim.</li>
<li>Imagine a possible world in which everyone in a similar position to the real-world agent followed that maxim. With no exception of one's self. This is in order for you to hold people to the same principle required of yourself.</li>
<li>Decide whether any contradictions or irrationalities arise in the possible world as a result of following the maxim.</li>
<li>If a contradiction or irrationality arises, acting on that maxim is not allowed in the real world.</li>
<li>If there is no contradiction, then acting on that maxim is permissible, and is sometimes required.</li>
</ol>
<p>(For a modern parallel, see <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>' hypothetical situation, the <a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>.)</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Second_formulation">Second formulation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Second formulation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The second formulation (or Formula of the End in Itself) holds that "the rational being, as by its nature an end and thus as an end in itself, must serve in every maxim as the condition restricting all merely relative and arbitrary ends".<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_436_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_436-69">[69]</a></sup> The principle dictates that you "[a]ct with reference to every rational being (whether yourself or another) so that it is an end in itself in your maxim", meaning that the rational being is "the basis of all maxims of action" and "must be treated never as a mere means but as the supreme limiting condition in the use of all means, i.e., as an end at the same time".<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_437-8_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_437-8-77">[77]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Third_formulation">Third formulation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Third formulation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The third formulation (Formula of Autonomy) is a synthesis of the first two and is the basis for the "complete determination of all maxims". It says "that all maxims which stem from autonomous legislation ought to harmonize with a possible realm of ends as with a realm of nature".<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_436_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_436-69">[69]</a></sup> In principle, "So act as if your maxims should serve at the same time as the universal law (of all rational beings)", meaning that we should so act that we may think of ourselves as "a member in the universal realm of ends", <a href="/wiki/Legislating" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislating">legislating</a> universal laws through our maxims (that is, a <a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">code of conduct</a>), in a "possible realm of ends".<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_438-9_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck_438-9-78">[78]</a></sup> None may elevate themselves above the universal law, therefore it is one's duty to follow the maxim(s).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion_Within_the_Limits_of_Reason"><i>Religion Within the Limits of Reason</i></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Religion Within the Limits of Reason">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Kant articulates his strongest criticisms of the organization and practices of religious organizations to those that encourage what he sees as a religion of counterfeit service to God.<sup id="cite_ref-Immanuel_Kant_1793_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Immanuel_Kant_1793-79">[79]</a></sup> Among the major targets of his criticism are external ritual, superstition and a hierarchical church order. He sees all of these as efforts to make oneself pleasing to God in ways other than conscientious adherence to the principle of moral rightness in choosing one's actions. The severity of Kant's criticisms on these matters, along with his rejection of the possibility of theoretical proofs for the existence of God and his philosophical re-interpretation of some basic Christian doctrines, allow interpretations that see Kant as thoroughly hostile to religion in general and Christianity in particular (e.g., Walsh 1967). Nevertheless, other interpreters consider that Kant was trying to mark off a defensible rational core of Christian belief.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> Kant sees in <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> the affirmation of a "pure moral disposition of the heart" that "can make man well-pleasing to God".<sup id="cite_ref-Immanuel_Kant_1793_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Immanuel_Kant_1793-79">[79]</a></sup></p>
<p>Regarding Kant’s conception of religion, some critics have highlighted his deism, for example Peter Byrne, who wrote about Kant’s precise relationship with deism.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> Other critics have shown that Kant’s moral conception moves from deism to theism, for example Allen W. Wood<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> and Merold Westphal.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> As for Kant’s book entitled <i>Religion within the Boundaries of bare Reason</i>, it was emphasized that Kant reduced religiosity to rational, religion to moral and ethics to Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Idea_of_freedom">Idea of freedom</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Idea of freedom">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> Kant distinguishes between the transcendental idea of freedom, which as a psychological concept is "mainly empirical" and refers to "the question whether we must admit a power of spontaneously beginning a series of successive things or states" as a real ground of necessity in regard to causality,<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A448_B476_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A448_B476-86">[86]</a></sup> and the practical concept of freedom as the independence of our will from the "coercion" or "necessitation through sensuous impulses". Kant finds it a source of difficulty that the practical idea of freedom is founded on the transcendental idea of freedom,<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A534_B562_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A534_B562-87">[87]</a></sup> but for the sake of practical interests uses the practical meaning, taking "no account of... its transcendental meaning," which he feels was properly "disposed of" in the Third Antinomy, and as an element in the question of the freedom of the will is for philosophy "a real stumbling-block" that has "embarrassed speculative reason".<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A448_B476_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A448_B476-86">[86]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant calls practical "everything that is possible through freedom", and the pure practical laws that are never given through sensuous conditions but are held analogously with the universal law of causality are moral laws. Reason can give us only the "pragmatic laws of free action through the senses", but pure practical laws given by reason <i>a priori</i><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> dictate "<i>what ought to be done</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A800-802_B828-830_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A800-802_B828-830-89">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Categories_of_freedom">Categories of freedom</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Categories of freedom">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the <i>Critique of Practical Reason</i>, at the end of the second Main Part of the <i>Analytics</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup> Kant introduces the categories of freedom, in analogy with the categories of understanding their practical counterparts. Kant's categories of freedom apparently function primarily as conditions for the possibility for actions (i) to be free, (ii) to be understood as free and (iii) to be morally evaluated. For Kant, although actions as theoretical objects are constituted by means of the theoretical categories, actions as practical objects (objects of practical use of reason, and which can be good or bad) are constituted by means of the categories of freedom. Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aesthetic_philosophy">Aesthetic philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Aesthetic philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Kant discusses the subjective nature of aesthetic qualities and experiences in <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i>, (1764). Kant's contribution to <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic theory</a> is developed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i> (1790) where he investigates the possibility and logical status of "judgments of taste." In the "Critique of Aesthetic Judgment," the first major division of the <i>Critique of Judgment</i>, Kant used the term "aesthetic" in a manner that, according to Kant scholar W.H. Walsh, differs from its modern sense.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> Prior to this, in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, to note essential differences between judgments of taste, moral judgments, and scientific judgments, Kant abandoned the term "aesthetic" as "designating the critique of taste," noting that judgments of taste could never be "directed" by "laws <i>a priori</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-CPR_A22_B36_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPR_A22_B36-94">[94]</a></sup> After <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">A. G. Baumgarten</a>, who wrote <i>Aesthetica</i> (1750–58),<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> Kant was one of the first philosophers to develop and integrate aesthetic theory into a unified and comprehensive philosophical system, utilizing ideas that played an integral role throughout his philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the chapter "Analytic of the Beautiful" of the <i>Critique of Judgment</i>, Kant states that beauty is not a property of an artwork or natural phenomenon, but is instead a consciousness of the pleasure that attends the 'free play' of the imagination and the understanding. Even though it appears that we are using reason to decide what is beautiful, the judgment is not a cognitive judgment,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> "and is consequently not logical, but aesthetical" (§ 1). A pure judgement of taste is in fact subjective insofar as it refers to the emotional response of the subject and is based upon nothing but esteem for an object itself: it is a <i>disinterested</i> pleasure, and we feel that pure judgements of taste, i.e. judgements of beauty, lay claim to universal validity (§§20–22). It is important to note that this universal validity is not derived from a determinate concept of beauty but from <i>common sense</i> (§40). Kant also believed that a judgement of taste shares characteristics engaged in a moral judgement: both are disinterested, and we hold them to be universal. In the chapter "Analytic of the Sublime" Kant identifies the sublime as an aesthetic quality that, like beauty, is subjective, but unlike beauty refers to an indeterminate relationship between the faculties of the imagination and of reason, and shares the character of moral judgments in the use of reason. The feeling of the sublime, itself officially divided into two distinct modes (the mathematical and the dynamical sublime), describes two subjective moments, both of which concern the relationship of the faculty of the imagination to reason. Some commentators,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> however, argue that Kant's critical philosophy contains a third kind of the sublime, the moral sublime, which is the aesthetic response to the moral law or a representation thereof, and a development of the "noble" sublime in Kant's theory of 1764. The mathematical sublime is situated in the failure of the imagination to comprehend natural objects that appear boundless and formless, or appear "absolutely great" (§ 23–25). This imaginative failure is then recuperated through the pleasure taken in reason's assertion of the concept of infinity. In this move the faculty of reason proves itself superior to our fallible sensible self (§§ 25–26). In the dynamical sublime there is the sense of annihilation of the sensible self as the imagination tries to comprehend a vast might. This power of nature threatens us but through the resistance of reason to such sensible annihilation, the subject feels a pleasure and a sense of the human moral vocation. This appreciation of moral feeling through exposure to the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a> helps to develop moral character.</p>
<p>Kant had developed the distinction between an object of art as a material value subject to the conventions of society and the transcendental condition of the judgment of taste as a "refined" value in the propositions of his <i>Idea of A Universal History</i> (1784). In the Fourth and Fifth Theses of that work he identified all art as the "fruits of unsociableness" due to men's "antagonism in society",<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> and in the Seventh Thesis asserted that while such material property is indicative of a civilized state, only the ideal of morality and the universalization of refined value through the improvement of the mind of man "belongs to culture".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Political philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant</a></div>
<p>In "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch",<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace. They included a world of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional republic">constitutional republics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">classical republican</a> theory was extended in the <i>Science of Right</i>, the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1797).<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> Kant believed that <a href="/wiki/Universal_history" title="Universal history">universal history</a> leads to the ultimate world of republican states at peace, but his theory was not pragmatic. The process was described in "Perpetual Peace" as natural rather than rational:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>The guarantee of perpetual peace is nothing less than that great artist, nature...In her mechanical course we see that her aim is to produce a harmony among men, against their will, and indeed through their discord. As a necessity working according to laws we do not know, we call it destiny. But, considering its designs in universal history, we call it "providence," inasmuch as we discern in it the profound wisdom of a higher cause which predetermines the course of nature and directs it to the objective final end of the human race.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Kant's political thought can be summarized as republican government and international organization. "In more characteristically Kantian terms, it is doctrine of the state based upon the law (<a href="/wiki/Rechtsstaat" title="Rechtsstaat">Rechtsstaat</a>) and of eternal peace. Indeed, in each of these formulations, both terms express the same idea: that of legal constitution or of 'peace through law'. Taken simply by itself, Kant's political philosophy, being essentially a legal doctrine, rejects by definition the opposition between moral education and the play of passions as alternate foundations for social life. The state is defined as the union of men under law. The state rightly so called is constituted by laws which are necessary a priori because they flow from the very concept of law. A regime can be judged by no other criteria nor be assigned any other functions, than those proper to the lawful order as such." <sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup></p>
<p>He opposed "democracy," which at his time meant <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a>, believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty. He stated, "...democracy is, properly speaking, necessarily a despotism, because it establishes an executive power in which 'all' decide for or even against one who does not agree; that is, 'all,' who are not quite all, decide, and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom."<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> As with most writers at the time, he distinguished three forms of government i.e. democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy with <a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a> as the most ideal form of it.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Anthropology">Anthropology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Anthropology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Kant lectured on anthropology for over 25 years. His <i>Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</i> was published in 1798. (This was the subject of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>'s secondary dissertation for his <a href="/wiki/State_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="State doctorate">State doctorate</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Kant%27s_Anthropology" title="Introduction to Kant's Anthropology">Introduction to Kant's Anthropology</a></i>.) Kant's Lectures on Anthropology were published for the first time in 1997 in German.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> The former was translated into English and published by the Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy series in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant was among the first people of his time to introduce anthropology as an intellectual area of study long before the field gained popularity. As a result, his texts are considered to have advanced the field. Kant's point of view also influenced the works of philosophers after him such as Martin Heidegger, Paul Ricoeur, and Jean Greisch.</p>
<p>Kant viewed anthropology in two broad categories. One category was the physiological approach which he referred to as "what nature makes of the human being". The other category was the pragmatic approach which explored the things a human "can and should make of himself".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence">Influence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Influence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Kant's influence on Western thought has been profound.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> Over and above his influence on specific thinkers, Kant changed the framework within which philosophical inquiry has been carried out. He accomplished a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a>: very little philosophy is now carried out in the style of pre-Kantian philosophy. This shift consists in several closely related innovations that have become axiomatic, in philosophy itself and in the social sciences and humanities generally:</p>
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<li>Kant's "Copernican revolution", that placed the role of the human subject or knower at the center of inquiry into our knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they are independently of us or of how they are for us;<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup></li>
<li>His invention of critical philosophy, that is of the notion of being able to discover and systematically explore possible inherent limits to our ability to know through philosophical reasoning;</li>
<li>His creation of the concept of "conditions of possibility", as in his notion of "the conditions of possible experience"&#160;– that is that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, we must first understand these conditions;</li>
<li>His theory that objective experience is actively constituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind;</li>
<li>His notion of moral autonomy as central to humanity;</li>
<li>His assertion of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as means.</li>
</ul>
<p>Some or all of these Kantian ideas can be seen in schools of thought as different from one another as <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_philosophy" title="Linguistic philosophy">linguistic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Deconstructionism">deconstructionism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_influence">Historical influence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Historical influence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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Statue of Immanuel Kant in <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a> (<a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>), Russia. Replica by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harald_Haacke&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Harald Haacke (page does not exist)">Harald Haacke</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;(<a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Haacke" class="extiw" title="de:Harald Haacke">de</a>)</span> of the original by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Daniel_Rauch" title="Christian Daniel Rauch">Christian Daniel Rauch</a> lost in 1945.</div>
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<p>During his own life, there was much critical attention paid to his thought. He had an influence on <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Reinhold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling">Schelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> during the 1780s and 1790s. The school of thinking known as <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a> developed from his writings. The German Idealists Fichte and Schelling, for example, tried to bring traditional "metaphysically" laden notions like "the Absolute", "God", and "Being" into the scope of Kant's critical thought.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> In so doing, the German Idealists tried to reverse Kant's view that we cannot know what we cannot observe.</p>
<p>Hegel was one of Kant's first major critics. In response to what he saw as Kant's abstract and formal account, Hegel brought about an ethic focused on the "ethical life" of the community.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> But Hegel's notion of "ethical life" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a>. And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "desires", by means of reason. Thus, in contrast to later critics like Nietzsche or Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's most basic concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant's thinking on religion was used in Britain to challenge the decline in religious faith in the nineteenth century. British Catholic writers, notably <a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Hilaire Belloc</a>, followed this approach. <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Englefield" title="Ronald Englefield">Ronald Englefield</a> debated this movement, and Kant's use of language. See Englefield's article,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup> reprinted in Englefield.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> Criticisms of Kant were common in the realist views of the new positivism at that time.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> was strongly influenced by Kant's <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>. He, like <a href="/wiki/G._E._Schulze" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. Schulze">G. E. Schulze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Jacobi</a>, and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe nor are they completely beyond our access. Ever since the first <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Many have argued, if such a thing exists beyond experience then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category 'causality' beyond the realm of experience. For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see <i>The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection</i> in the revised edition of Henry Allison's <i>Kant's Transcendental Idealism</i>. For Schopenhauer things in themselves do not exist outside the non-rational will. The world, as Schopenhauer would have it, is the striving and largely unconscious will. Michael Kelly, in the preface to his 1910 book <i>Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism</i>, stated: "Of Kant it may be said that what is good and true in his philosophy would have been buried with him, were it not for Schopenhauer...."</p>
<p>With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's influence began to wane, though there was in Germany a movement that hailed a return to Kant in the 1860s, beginning with the publication of <i>Kant und die Epigonen</i> in 1865 by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Liebmann" title="Otto Liebmann">Otto Liebmann</a>. His motto was "Back to Kant", and a re-examination of his ideas began (See <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a>). During the turn of the 20th century there was an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as the <a href="/wiki/Marburg_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Marburg School">Marburg School</a>, represented in the work of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Natorp" title="Paul Natorp">Paul Natorp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> and anti-Neo-Kantian <a href="/wiki/Nicolai_Hartmann" title="Nicolai Hartmann">Nicolai Hartmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant's notion of "Critique" has been quite influential. The Early German Romantics, especially <a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel">Friedrich Schlegel</a> in his "Athenaeum Fragments", used Kant's self-reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> Also in <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a>, in his classic essay "Modernist Painting", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as "immanent criticism", to justify the aims of <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Art">Abstract painting</a>, a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitiaton—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup> French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> was also greatly influenced by Kant's notion of "Critique" and wrote several pieces on Kant for a re-thinking of the Enlightenment as a form of "critical thought". He went so far as to classify his own philosophy as a "critical history of modernity, rooted in Kant".<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup></p>
<p>Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_a_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic a priori">synthetic a priori</a> knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through intuition.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> Kant's often brief remarks about <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> influenced the mathematical school known as <a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">intuitionism</a>, a movement in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> opposed to <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert's</a> <a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">formalism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Frege" class="mw-redirect" title="Frege">Frege</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_modern_thinkers">Influence on modern thinkers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Influence on modern thinkers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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West German postage stamp, 1974, commemorating the 250th anniversary of Kant's birth</div>
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<p>With his "<a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a>", Kant is considered to have foreshadowed many of the ideas that have come to form the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">democratic peace theory</a>, one of the main controversies in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup></p>
<p>Prominent recent Kantians include the British philosopher <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> the American philosophers <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup> Due to the influence of Strawson and Sellars, among others, there has been a renewed interest in Kant's view of the mind. Central to many debates in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">philosophy of psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> are two significant political and moral philosophers whose work is strongly influenced by Kant's moral philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> They have each argued against relativism,<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> supporting the Kantian view that universality is essential to any viable moral philosophy.</p>
<p>Kant's influence also has extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences, as in the sociology of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, the psychology of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>, and the linguistics of <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>. Kant's work on mathematics and synthetic a priori knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> as an early influence on his intellectual development.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup> Because of the thoroughness of the Kantian paradigm shift, his influence extends to thinkers who neither specifically refer to his work nor use his terminology.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Personal_legacy">Personal legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Personal legacy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike. But <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heinrich Heine</a> noted the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to Robespierre with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois. Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god."<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup></p>
<p>When he was exhumed for his body's transfer to a new burial spot, his skull was measured amidst his exhumation ceremony, and found to be larger than the average German male's with a "high and broad" forehead.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup> His forehead has been an object of interest ever since it became well-known through his portraits: “In Döbler’s portrait and in Kiefer’s faithful if expressionistic reproduction of it — as well as in many of the other late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century portraits of Kant — the forehead is remarkably large and decidedly retreating. Was Kant’s forehead shaped this way in these images because he was a philosopher, or, to follow the implications of Lavater’s system, was he a philosopher because of the intellectual acuity manifested by his forehead? Kant and Lavater were correspondents on theological matters, and Lavater cites Kant in the Physiognomy.?<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Tomb_and_statue">Tomb and statue</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Tomb and statue">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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Kant's tomb in <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, 2007</div>
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5 DM 1974 D silver coin commemorating the 250th birthday of Immanuel Kant in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a></div>
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<p>Kant's <a href="/wiki/Tomb" title="Tomb">tomb</a> is today in a <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">mausoleum</a> adjoining the northeast corner of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg_Cathedral" title="Königsberg Cathedral">Königsberg Cathedral</a> in what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, Russia. The mausoleum was constructed by the architect <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Lahrs" title="Friedrich Lahrs">Friedrich Lahrs</a> and was finished in 1924 in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved outside and placed in a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Gothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Gothic">neo-Gothic</a> chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated before it was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same spot, where it is today.</p>
<p>The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the <a href="/wiki/Soviets" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviets">Soviets</a> after they conquered and annexed the city. Today, many newlyweds bring flowers to the mausoleum.</p>
<p>Artifacts previously owned by Kant, known as <i>Kantiana</i>, were included in the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg_City_Museum" title="Königsberg City Museum">Königsberg City Museum</a>. However, the museum was destroyed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.</p>
<p>A replica of the statue of Kant that stood in German times in front of the main <a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a> building was donated by a German entity in the early 1990s and placed in the same grounds.</p>
<p>After the expulsion of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>'s German population at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the University of Königsberg where Kant taught was replaced by the Russian-language Kaliningrad State University, which took up the campus and surviving buildings of the historic German university. In 2005, the university was renamed <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant_State_University_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanuel Kant State University of Russia">Immanuel Kant State University of Russia</a>. The change of name was announced at a ceremony attended by President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> of Russia and Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Gerhard Schröder">Gerhard Schröder</a> of Germany, and the university formed a Kant Society, dedicated to the study of <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism">Criticism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer%27s_criticism_of_the_Kantian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy">Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer%27s_criticism_of_Kant%27s_Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer%27s_criticism_of_Immanuel_Kant%27s_schemata" title="Arthur Schopenhauer's criticism of Immanuel Kant's schemata">Arthur Schopenhauer's criticism of Immanuel Kant's schemata</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="List_of_major_works">List of major works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: List of major works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>(1749) <i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_the_True_Estimation_of_Living_Forces" title="Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces">Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces</a></i> (<i>Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte</i>)</li>
<li>(March 1755) <i><a href="/wiki/Universal_Natural_History_and_Theory_of_Heaven" title="Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven">Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven</a></i> (<i>Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels</i>)</li>
<li>(Apr. 1755) <i>Brief Outline of Certain Meditations on Fire</i> (<i>Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio</i> (<a href="/wiki/Master%27s_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Master's thesis">master's thesis</a> under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johann_Gottfried_Teske&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Gottfried Teske (page does not exist)">Johann Gottfried Teske</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;(<a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Teske" class="extiw" title="de:Johann Gottfried Teske">de</a>)</span>))<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup></li>
<li>(Sep. 1755) <i>A New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition</i> (<i>Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio</i> (<a href="/wiki/Doctoral_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral thesis">doctoral thesis</a>))<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1756) <i>The Use in Natural Philosophy of Metaphysics Combined with Geometry, Part I: Physical Monadology</i> (<i>Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophin naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam</i>, abbreviated as <i>Monadologia Physica</i> (thesis as a prerequisite of associate professorship))<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1762) <i><a href="/wiki/The_False_Subtlety_of_the_Four_Syllogistic_Figures" title="The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures">The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures</a></i> (<i>Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren</i>)</li>
<li>(1763) <i><a href="/wiki/The_Only_Possible_Argument_in_Support_of_a_Demonstration_of_the_Existence_of_God" title="The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God">The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God</a></i> (<i>Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes</i>)</li>
<li>(1763) <i>Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy</i> (<i>Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen</i>)</li>
<li>(1764) <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i> (<i>Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen</i>)</li>
<li>(1764) <i>Essay on the Illness of the Head</i> (<i>Über die Krankheit des Kopfes</i>)</li>
<li>(1764) <i>Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality</i> (the <i>Prize Essay</i>) (<i>Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral</i>)</li>
<li>(1766) <i>Dreams of a Spirit-Seer</i> (<i>Träume eines Geistersehers</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1770) <i>Dissertation on the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World</i> (<i>De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis</i> (<a href="/wiki/Inaugural_dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inaugural dissertation">inaugural dissertation</a>))<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1775) <i>On the Different Races of Man</i> (<i>Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen</i>)</li>
<li>(1781) First edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup> (<i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1783) <i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_any_Future_Metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup> (<i>Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik</i>)</li>
<li>(1784) "<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What Is Enlightenment?">An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?</a>" ("<i>Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?</i>")<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1784) "<a href="/wiki/Idea_for_a_Universal_History_with_a_Cosmopolitan_Purpose" title="Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose">Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose</a>" ("<i>Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht</i>")</li>
<li>(1785) <i><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a></i> (<i>Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten</i>)</li>
<li>(1786) <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_Foundations_of_Natural_Science" title="Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science">Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science</a></i> (<i>Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft</i>)</li>
<li>(1786) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/KantOrientFerrerMarch2014">What does it mean to orient oneself in thinking?</a>" ("<i>Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?</i>")</li>
<li>(1786) <i>Conjectural Beginning of Human History</i></li>
<li>(1787) Second edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup> (<i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1788) <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> (<i>Kritik der praktischen Vernunft</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1790) <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Critique of Judgement">Critique of Judgement</a></i> (<i>Kritik der Urteilskraft</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1793) <i><a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Limits_of_Reason_Alone" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone">Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone</a></i> (<i>Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1793) <i>On the Old Saw: That may be right in theory, but it won't work in practice</i> <i>(Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis)</i></li>
<li>(1795) "<a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup> ("<i>Zum ewigen Frieden</i>")<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1797) <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a></i> (<i>Metaphysik der Sitten</i>). First part is The Doctrine of Right, which has often been published separately as The Science of Right.</li>
<li>(1798) <i>Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</i> (<i>Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht</i>)</li>
<li>(1798) <i>The Contest of Faculties</i><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup> (<i>Der Streit der Fakultäten</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1800) <i>Logic</i> (<i>Logik</i>)</li>
<li>(1803) <i>On Pedagogy</i> (<i>Über Pädagogik</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></sup></li>
<li>(1804) <i>Opus Postumum</i></li>
<li>(1817) <i>Lectures on Philosophical Theology</i> (<i>Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre</i> edited by K. H. L. Pölitz) [The English edition of A. W. Wood &amp; G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) is based on Pölitz' second edition, 1830, of these lectures]<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Collected_works_in_German">Collected works in German</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Collected works in German">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a> inaugurated the Academy edition (the <i>Akademie-Ausgabe</i> abbreviated as <i>AA</i> or <i>Ak</i>) of Kant's writings (<i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>, <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften</a>, Berlin 1900ff.) in 1895,<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup> and served as its first editor. The volumes are grouped into four sections:</p>
<ul>
<li>I. Kant's published writings (vols. 1–9),</li>
<li>II. Kant's correspondence (vols. 10–13),</li>
<li>III. Kant's literary remains, or <i><a href="/wiki/Nachlass" title="Nachlass">Nachlass</a></i> (vols. 14–23), and</li>
<li>IV. Student notes from Kant’s lectures (vols. 24–29).</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li><i><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus_(book)" title="Aenesidemus (book)">Aenesidemus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kant_Russian_State_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant Russian State University">Kant Russian State University</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant</a></li>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a>, <i>German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781-1801</i>, Harvard University Press, 2002, part I.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">KpV</a></i> A219 (=<i>Ak</i> IV, 252).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuehn 2001, p. 251.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant">"Kant"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">"Immanuel Kant"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 20 May 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.date=2010-05-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant%2F&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Plato.stanford.edu-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plato.stanford.edu_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">"Immanuel Kant (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. Plato.stanford.edu. 20 May 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&amp;rft.date=2010-05-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant%2F&amp;rft.pub=Plato.stanford.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Idea_for_a_Universal_History_with_a_Cosmopolitan_Purpose" title="Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose">Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. Nietzsche, <a href="/wiki/The_Antichrist_(book)" title="The Antichrist (book)"><i>The Anti-Christ</i></a> (1895), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DcVl57jzP2gC&amp;pg=PA9&amp;lpg=PA9&amp;dq=%22theologian+blood%22+the+antichrist&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=CzqxPveANg&amp;sig=A-X36l8mmYUUI3wT56qpkBnVwpc&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CCwQ6AEwA2oVChMIm-iS_d_UxwIVA3Y-Ch2mGgvo#v=onepage&amp;q=%22theologian%20blood%22%20the%20antichrist&amp;f=false">para. 10</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~lchang/material/Evolutionary/Developmental/Greene-KantSoul.pdf">http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~lchang/material/Evolutionary/Developmental/Greene-KantSoul.pdf</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kant, Immanuel; Kitcher, Patricia (intro.); Pluhar, W. (trans.) (1996). <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Indianapolis: Hackett. xxviii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.aufirst=Immanuel&amp;rft.au=Kitcher%2C+Patricia+%28intro.%29&amp;rft.aulast=Kant&amp;rft.au=Pluhar%2C+W.+%28trans.%29&amp;rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=xxviii&amp;rft.place=Indianapolis&amp;rft.pub=Hackett&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Vanzo, Alberto. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/id/eprint/59913">"Kant on Empiricism and Rationalism"</a>. <i>History of Philosophy Quarterly</i> <b>30</b> (1): 53–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Kant+on+Empiricism+and+Rationalism&amp;rft.aufirst=Alberto&amp;rft.aulast=Vanzo&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwrap.warwick.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F59913&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=History+of+Philosophy+Quarterly&amp;rft.pages=53-74&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=30" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/quote%7C">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/quote%7C</a>"He synthesized early modern rationalism and empiricism"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Warburton-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Warburton_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nigel Warburton (2011). "Chapter 19: Rose-tinted reality: Immanuel Kant". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X2uIzqoT-ncC&amp;pg=PA110"><i>A little history of philosophy</i></a>. Yale University Press. pp.&#160;111 <i>ff</i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300152086" title="Special:BookSources/0300152086">0300152086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+19%3A+Rose-tinted+reality%3A+Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Nigel+Warburton&amp;rft.btitle=A+little+history+of+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX2uIzqoT-ncC%26pg%3DPA110&amp;rft.isbn=0300152086&amp;rft.pages=111+%27%27ff%27%27&amp;rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html">"Cosmopolis"</a>. Koenigsberg-is-dead.de. 23 April 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Cosmopolis&amp;rft.date=2001-04-23&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.koenigsberg-is-dead.de%2FI_Cosmopolis.html&amp;rft.pub=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mortensen, Hans and Gertrud, <i>Kants väterliche Ahnen und ihre Umwelt, Rede von 1952 in Jahrbuch der Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg</i>, Pr., Holzner-Verlag, Kitzingen, Main 1953, Vol. 3, p. 26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", <i>Kantian Review</i> <b>13</b>(1), March 2008, pp. 190-193.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosa Kohlheim, Volker Kohlheim, <i>Duden – Familiennamen: Herkunft und Bedeutung von 20.000 Nachnamen</i>, Bibliographisches Institut &amp; F. A. Brockhaus AG, Mannheim 2005, p. 365.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20(de).pdf">[1]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuehn 2001, p. 26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuehn 2001, p. 47.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"While this sounds skeptical, Kant is only agnostic about our knowledge of metaphysical objects such as God. And, as noted above, Kant's agnosticism leads to the conclusion that we can neither affirm nor deny claims made by traditional metaphysics." Andrew Fiala, <a href="/wiki/J._M._D._Meiklejohn" class="mw-redirect" title="J. M. D. Meiklejohn">J. M. D. Meiklejohn</a>, <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> – Introduction, page xi.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Edward J. Verstraete (2008). Ed Hindson; Ergun Caner, eds. <i>The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity</i>. Harvest House Publishers. p.&#160;82. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780736920841" title="Special:BookSources/9780736920841">9780736920841</a>. <q>It is in this sense that modern atheism rests heavily upon the skepticism of David Hume and the agnosticism of Immanuel Kant.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Edward+J.+Verstraete&amp;rft.btitle=The+Popular+Encyclopedia+of+Apologetics%3A+Surveying+the+Evidence+for+the+Truth+of+Christianity&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780736920841&amp;rft.pages=82&amp;rft.pub=Harvest+House+Publishers&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Norman L. Geisler; Frank Turek (2004). "Kant's Agnosticism: Should We Be Agnostic About It?". <i>I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist</i>. Crossway. pp.&#160;59–60. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781581345612" title="Special:BookSources/9781581345612">9781581345612</a>. <q>Immanuel Kant's impact has been even more devastating to the Christian worldview than David Hume's. For if Kant's philosophy is right, then there is no way to know anything about the real world, even empirically verifiable things!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Agnosticism%3A+Should+We+Be+Agnostic+About+It%3F&amp;rft.au=Frank+Turek&amp;rft.au=Norman+L.+Geisler&amp;rft.btitle=I+Don%27t+Have+Enough+Faith+to+Be+an+Atheist&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=9781581345612&amp;rft.pages=59-60&amp;rft.pub=Crossway&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Gary D. Badcock (1997). <i>Light of Truth and Fire of Love: A Theology of the Holy Spirit</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p.&#160;113. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802842886" title="Special:BookSources/9780802842886">9780802842886</a>. <q>Kant has no interest in prayer or worship, and is in fact agnostic when it comes to such classical theological questions as the doctrine of God or of the Holy Spirit.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Gary+D.+Badcock&amp;rft.btitle=Light+of+Truth+and+Fire+of+Love%3A+A+Theology+of+the+Holy+Spirit&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780802842886&amp;rft.pages=113&amp;rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Norman L. Geisler, Paul K. Hoffman, ed. (2006). "The Agnosticism of Immanuel Kant". <i>Why I Am a Christian: Leading Thinkers Explain Why They Believe</i>. Baker Books. p.&#160;45. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801067129" title="Special:BookSources/9780801067129">9780801067129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=The+Agnosticism+of+Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Why+I+Am+a+Christian%3A+Leading+Thinkers+Explain+Why+They+Believe&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=9780801067129&amp;rft.pages=45&amp;rft.pub=Baker+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Frank K. Flinn (2007). <i>Encyclopedia of Catholicism</i>. Infobase Publishing. p.&#160;10. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816075652" title="Special:BookSources/9780816075652">9780816075652</a>. <q>Following Locke, the classic agnostic claims not to accept more propositions than are warranted by empirical evidence. In this sense an agnostic appeals to Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who claims in his Critique of Pure Reason that since God, freedom, immortality, and the soul can be both proved and disproved by theoretical reason, we ought to suspend judgement about them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Frank+K.+Flinn&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Catholicism&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780816075652&amp;rft.pages=10&amp;rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i>. Trans. John T. Goldthwait. University of California Press, 1961, 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520240782" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-520-24078-2</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Rick. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philosophynow.org/issues/49/Kant_200_Years_On">'Kant 200 Years On'</a>. <i>Philosophy Now</i>. No. 49.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textlog.de/35594.html">Karl Vorländer: Immanuel Kant - Bei Pfarrer Andersch in Judtschen</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textlog.de/35593.html">Karl Vorländer: Immanuel Kant - Bei Pfarrer Andersch in Judtschen</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The American International Encyclopedia</i> (New York: J.J. Little &amp; Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuehn 2001, p. 94.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuehn 2001, p. 98.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Watkins (ed.), <i>Immanuel Kant: Natural Science</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2012: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf">"Thoughts on the true estimation..."</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-iep-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iep_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/">"Immanuel Kant: Metaphysics"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Metaphysics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fkantmeta%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Gamow, <i>One, Two, Three... Infinity</i>, pp. 300ff. Viking Press, 1954</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf., for example, Susan Shell, <i>The Embodiment of Reason</i> (Chicago, 1996)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://hardproblem.ru/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/Vasilyev-The-Origin.pdf">[2]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, <i>Introducing Kant</i> (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1840466642" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-84046-664-2</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston, Frederick Charles</a>. <i>The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant</i>. 2003. p. 146.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sassen, Brigitte. <i>Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy</i>. 2000.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik</i>, vol. III, <i>Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit</i> (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. <i>Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought.</i> Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gulyga, Arsenij. <i>Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought.</i> Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987 pp. 28–9.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gulyga, Arsenij. <i>Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought.</i> Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987, p. 62.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Derrida <i>Vacant Chair</i> p. 44.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Fichte-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fichte_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html">"Open letter by Kant denouncing Fichte's Philosophy (in German)"</a>. Korpora.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Open+letter+by+Kant+denouncing+Fichte%27s+Philosophy+%28in+German%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.korpora.org%2FKant%2Faa12%2F370.html&amp;rft.pub=Korpora.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C.S., <i>Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce</i>, v.1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant and his Refutation of Idealism' p. 15</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel, <i>Logic</i>, G.B. Jäsche (ed), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (translators), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Vorländer, <i>Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk</i>, Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">McAleer, Sean. "Kant's Theory of Virtue: The Value of Autocracy. Ethics". <i>Heythrop Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Theory+of+Virtue%3A+The+Value+of+Autocracy.+Ethics&amp;rft.aufirst=Sean&amp;rft.aulast=McAleer&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Heythrop+Journal&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A801-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A801_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, A801.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SoR_Concl-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SoR_Concl_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Science of Right,</i> Conclusion.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A811-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A811_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A811.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the first edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> Kant refers to space as "no discursive or...general conception of the relation of things, but a pure intuition" and maintained that "We can only represent to ourselves one space". The "general notion of spaces...depends solely upon limitations" (Meikeljohn trans., A25). In the second edition of the CPR, Kant adds, "The original representation of space is an <i>a priori</i> intuition, not a concept" (Kemp Smith trans., B40). In regard to time, Kant states that "Time is not a discursive, or what is called a general concept, but a pure form of sensible intuition. Different times are but parts of one and the same time; and the representation which can be given only through a single object is intuition" (A31/B47). For the differences in the discursive use of reason according to concepts and its intuitive use through the construction of concepts, see <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> (A719/B747 ff. and A837/B865). On "One and the same thing in space and time" and the mathematical construction of concepts, see A724/B752.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Kant%2c+Immanuel">"Kant, Immanuel definition of Kant, Immanuel in the Free Online Encyclopedia"</a>. Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Kant%2C+Immanuel+definition+of+Kant%2C+Immanuel+in+the+Free+Online+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com%2FKant%252c%2BImmanuel&amp;rft.pub=Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The German word <i>Anschauung</i>, which Kant used, literally means 'looking at' and generally means what in philosophy in English is called "perception". However it sometimes is rendered as "intuition": not, however, with the vernacular meaning of an indescribable or mystical experience or sixth sense, but rather with the meaning of the direct perception or grasping of sensory phenomena. In this article, both terms, "perception" and "intuition" are used to stand for Kant's <i>Anschauung</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason [1781], trans. Norman Kemp Smith (N.Y.: St. Martins, 1965), A 51/B 75.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Ed. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Paul Guyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Allen W. Wood</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. p. 248.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Prolegomena-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prolegomena_59-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, <i>Prolegomena to perhaps Any Future Metaphysics</i>, pages 35 to 43.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/texte.php?cle=66&amp;groupe=Kant&amp;langue=2">Deleuze on Kant</a>, from where the definitions of <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> were obtained.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, <i>Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</i>, pages 35 to 43.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Hackett-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hackett_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, <i>Critique of Judgment</i>, the Introduction to the Hackett edition.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck1-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck1_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i>Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals</i>. Trans. Lewis White Beck. Page numbers citing this work are Beck's marginal numbers that refer to the page numbers of the standard edition of <i>Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>. Berlin, 1902–38.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The distinction between rational and philosophical knowledge is given in the Preface to the <i>Groundwork</i>, 1785.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_421-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_421_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, p. 421.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A806_B834-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A806_B834_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A806/B834.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_408-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_408_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, p. 408.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_420-1-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_420-1_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, pp. 420–1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_436-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck_436_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck_436_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck_436_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck_436_69-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, p. 436.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) <i>Ecosystems and Well-being: A Framework for Assessment</i>. Washington DC: Island Press, p. 142.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/kant/append1.htm">"Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch: Appendix 1"</a>. Constitution.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Perpetual+Peace%3A+A+Philosophical+Sketch%3A+Appendix+1&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Fkant%2Fappend1.htm&amp;rft.pub=Constitution.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=LykHAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA61&amp;dq=pereat+mundus+inauthor:Kant"><i>Project for a Perpetual Peace, p. 61</i></a>. Books.google.com. 1796<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Project+for+a+Perpetual+Peace%2C+p.+61&amp;rft.date=1796&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DLykHAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA61%26dq%3Dpereat%2Bmundus%2Binauthor%3AKant&amp;rft.pub=Books.google.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=QskIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA456&amp;dq=pereat+mundus+inauthor:Kant"><i>Immanuel Kant's Werke, revidirte Gesammtausg, p. 456</i></a>. Books.google.com. 1838<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%27s+Werke%2C+revidirte+Gesammtausg%2C+p.+456&amp;rft.date=1838&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DQskIAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA456%26dq%3Dpereat%2Bmundus%2Binauthor%3AKant&amp;rft.pub=Books.google.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_437-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_437_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Foundations, p. 437.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Kant and the German Enlightenment" in "History of Ethics". <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Vol. 3, pp. 95–96. MacMillan, 1973.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_400_429-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_400_429_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, pp. 400, 429.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_437-8-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_437-8_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, pp. 437–8.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Beck_438-9-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_438-9_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Foundations</i>, pp. 438–9. See also <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Immanuel_Kant_1793-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Immanuel_Kant_1793_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Immanuel_Kant_1793_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant. <i>Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone</i> (1793), Book IV, Part 1, Section 1, "The Christian religion as a natural religion."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/">"Kant's Philosophy of Religion (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. Plato.stanford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Philosophy+of+Religion+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant-religion%2F&amp;rft.pub=Plato.stanford.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Byrne, Peter (2007), <i>Kant on God</i>, London: Ashgate, page 159.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Allen W. (1970), <i>Kant's moral religion</i>, London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, page 16.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westphal, Merold (2010),<i>The Emerge of Modern Philosophy of Religion</i>, in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), <i>A Companion to Philosophy of Religion</i>, Oxford: Blackwell, page 135.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iţu, Mircia (2004), <i>Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii</i>, in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N. I. (editors), <i>Studii de istoria filosofiei universale</i>, volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Norman Kemp Smith translation has been used for this section, with citation noting the pagination of the first and second editions.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A448_B476-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A448_B476_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A448_B476_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A448/B476.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A534_B562-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A534_B562_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A534/B562.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">the same distinction of transcendental and practical meaning can be applied to the idea of God, with the <i>proviso</i> that the practical concept of freedom can be experienced (<i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A801-804/B829-832).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A800-802_B828-830-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A800-802_B828-830_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A800–2/B828–30.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The concept of freedom is also handled in the third section of the <i>Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals</i>. In the <i>Critique of Practical Reason</i> see § VII and § VIII.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">5:65–67</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Bobzien" title="Susanne Bobzien">Susanne Bobzien</a>, 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in <i>Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik</i> Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel" <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol 4. Macmillan, 1973.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPR_A22_B36-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_A22_B36_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A22/B36.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the <i>Aesthetica</i> unfinished (See also: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the <i>Critique of Judgment</i> he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in <i>Logic</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Clewis, Robert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US">"The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom"</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft.aulast=Clewis&amp;rft.btitle=The+Kantian+Sublime+and+the+Revelation+of+Freedom&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fknowledge%2Fisbn%2Fitem2326741%2F%3Fsite_locale%3Den_US&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i>Idea for a Universal History</i>. Trans. Lewis White Beck (20, 22). Page numbers are Beck's marginal numbers that refer to the page numbers of the standard edition of <i>Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>. Berlin, 1902–38.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i>Idea for a Universal History</i>. Trans. Lewis White Beck (26).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> (1795)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i>Perpetual Peace.</i> Trans. Lewis White Beck (377).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manfred Riedel <i>Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy</i>, Cambridge 1984</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>On History</i>, (ed. L. W. Beck, New York: Bobbs Merill, 1963, p 106).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582, 603</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. <i>Perpetual Peace.</i> Trans. Lewis White Beck (352).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Sturm, <i>Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen</i> (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</i>, ed. Robert B. Louden, introduction by Manfred Kuehn, Cambridge University Press, 2006</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Gregor, Brian. "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. By Immanuel Kant. Translated and edited by Robert B. Louden.". Heythrop.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Anthropology+from+a+Pragmatic+Point+of+View.+By+Immanuel+Kant.+Translated+and+edited+by+Robert+B.+Louden.&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.aulast=Gregor&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=Heythrop" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prof. Oliver A. Johnson claims that, "With the possible exception of Plato's Republic, (Critique of Pure Reason) is the most important philosophical book ever written." Article on Kant within the collection "Great thinkers of the Western World", Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", <i>Metaphilosophy</i> 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1">Kant's System of Perspectives</a>: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is much debate in the recent scholarship about the extent to which Fichte and Schelling actually overstep the boundaries of Kant's critical philosophy, thus entering the realm of dogmatic or pre-Critical philosophy. Beiser's <i>German Idealism</i> discusses some of these issues. Beiser, Frederick C. <i>German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.</i> Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 2002.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, <i>Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences.</i> trans. T. M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his <i>Philosophy of Right.</i> Hegel, <i>Philosophy of Right.</i> trans. T. M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Pippin's <i>Hegel's Idealism</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, <i>Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's <i>Science of Logic</i> defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Englefield, Ronald, <i>Kant as Defender of the Faith in Nineteenth-century England",</i> Question<i>, 12, 16–27, (Pemberton, London)</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Englefield, Ronald, Critique of Pure Verbiage, Essays on Abuses of Language in Literary, Religious, and Philosophical Writings, edited by G. A. Wells and D. R. Oppenheimer, Open Court, 1990.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beck, Lewis White. "Neo-Kantianism". In <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 5–6. Macmillan, 1973. Article on Neo-Kantianism by a translator and scholar of Kant.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cerf, Walter. "Nicolai Hartmann". In <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 3–4. Macmillan, 1973. Nicolai was a realist who later rejected the idealism of Neo-Kantianism, his anti-Neo-Kantian views emerging with the publication of the second volume of <i>Hegel</i> (1929).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in <i>Philosophical Fragments</i>. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in <i>The Philosophy of Art</i>, ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol.2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology." Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City, New York: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i> 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephan_K%C3%B6rner" title="Stephan Körner">Körner, Stephan</a>, <i>The Philosophy of Mathematics</i>, Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, <i>Kant and the Exact Sciences</i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray, James Lee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm"><i>Does Democracy Cause Peace?</i></a> Annual Review of Political Science 1998. 1:27–46.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strawson, P. F., <i>The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.</i> Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sellars, Wilfrid, <i>Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes.</i> Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Korsgaard, Christine. <i>Creating the Kingdom of Ends.</i> Cambridge; New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 1996. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521496446" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-49644-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521499623" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-49962-3</a> (pbk.) <i>Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Brook" title="Andrew Brook">Brook, Andrew</a>. <i>Kant and the Mind</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. See also, Meerbote, R. "Kant's <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a>". In: J. C. Smith, ed. <i>Historical Foundations of Cognitive Science</i>. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1991. Brook has an article on Kant's View of the Mind in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/">Stanford Encyclopedia</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Habermas, J. <i>Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action.</i> Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. <i>Theory of Justice</i> Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in <i>Kant's Transcendental Deductions</i>. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Eds.): Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Issacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe." p. 20.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf">"Heine on Immanuel Kant"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Heine+on+Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.uchicago.edu%2Fresources%2Ffiles%2FOn%2520Kant.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche</i>, James Miller p.284</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Immanuel Kant and the Bo(a)rders of Art History</i> Mark Cheetham, in The Subjects of Art History: Historical Objects in Contemporary Perspectives, p. 16</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, <i>Kant: Natural Science</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Watkins (ed.), <i>Kant and the Sciences</i>, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Schonfeld, <i>The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project</i>, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html">online at Bonner Kant-Korpus</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Available online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html">online at Bonner Kant-Korpus</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant">online at Archive.org</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA123&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">online at Google Books</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English translation available <a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kant%27s_Inaugural_Dissertation_of_1770" class="extiw" title="s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770">online at Wikisource</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/">"The Critique of Pure Reason"</a>. Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=The+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.library.adelaide.edu.au%2Fk%2Fkant%2Fimmanuel%2Fk16p%2F&amp;rft.pub=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Immanuel Kant (20 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm">"Projekt Gutenberg-DE – Spiegel Online – Nachrichten – Kultur"</a>. Gutenberg.spiegel.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE+%93+Spiegel+Online+%93+Nachrichten+%93+Kultur&amp;rft.date=2009-07-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fkrva%2Fkrva.htm&amp;rft.pub=Gutenberg.spiegel.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant-prolegomena.txt">http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant-prolegomena.txt</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Frank-Christian Lilienweihs (10 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm">"Immanuel Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?"</a>. Prometheusonline.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Frank-Christian+Lilienweihs&amp;rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Beantwortung+der+Frage%3A+Was+ist+Aufklaerung%3F&amp;rft.date=1999-06-10&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prometheusonline.de%2Fheureka%2Fphilosophie%2Fklassiker%2Fkant%2Faufklaerung.htm&amp;rft.pub=Prometheusonline.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html">"Critique of Pure Reason"</a>. Hkbu.edu.hk. 31 October 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&amp;rft.date=2003-10-31&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hkbu.edu.hk%2F~ppp%2Fcpr%2Ftoc.html&amp;rft.pub=Hkbu.edu.hk&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm">"Projekt Gutenberg-DE – Spiegel Online – Nachrichten – Kultur"</a>. Gutenberg.spiegel.de. 20 July 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE+%93+Spiegel+Online+%93+Nachrichten+%93+Kultur&amp;rft.date=2009-07-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fkrvb%2Fkrvb.htm&amp;rft.pub=Gutenberg.spiegel.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt">http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Immanuel Kant (20 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm">"Projekt Gutenberg-DE – Spiegel Online – Nachrichten – Kultur"</a>. Gutenberg.spiegel.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE+%93+Spiegel+Online+%93+Nachrichten+%93+Kultur&amp;rft.date=2009-07-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fkritikpr%2Fkritikpr.htm&amp;rft.pub=Gutenberg.spiegel.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Critique_of_Judgement" class="extiw" title="s:The Critique of Judgement">s:The Critique of Judgement</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm">"Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793"</a>. Marxists.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Religion+within+the+Limits+of+Reason+Alone+by+Immanuel+Kant+1793&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Freference%2Fsubject%2Fethics%2Fkant%2Freligion%2Freligion-within-reason.htm&amp;rft.pub=Marxists.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm">"Immanuel Kant, "Perpetual Peace<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. Mtholyoke.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%2C+%22Perpetual+Peace%22&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Fkant%2Fkant1.htm&amp;rft.pub=Mtholyoke.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html">"Immanuel Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)"</a>. Uni-kassel.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Zum+ewigen+Frieden%2C+12.02.2004+%28Friedensratschlag%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-kassel.de%2Ffb5%2Ffrieden%2Fthemen%2FTheorie%2Fkant.html&amp;rft.pub=Uni-kassel.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/">"Kant, The Contest of Faculties"</a>. Chnm.gmu.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Kant%2C+The+Contest+of+Faculties&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchnm.gmu.edu%2Frevolution%2Fd%2F564%2F&amp;rft.pub=Chnm.gmu.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Immanuel Kant (20 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm">"Projekt Gutenberg-DE – Spiegel Online – Nachrichten – Kultur"</a>. Gutenberg.spiegel.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.btitle=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE+%93+Spiegel+Online+%93+Nachrichten+%93+Kultur&amp;rft.date=2009-07-20&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fstreit%2Fstreit.htm&amp;rft.pub=Gutenberg.spiegel.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803">online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As noted by <a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Allen W. Wood</a> in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, <i>Notes and Fragments</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. xvi.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References_and_further_reading">References and further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: References and further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY">Library resources</a> about<br />
<b>Immanuel Kant</b>
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<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&amp;su=82088490&amp;library=OLBP">Online books</a></li>
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<th style="padding:0.1em">By Immanuel Kant</th>
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<p>Any suggestion of further reading on Kant has to take cognizance of the fact that his work has dominated philosophy like no other figure after him. Nevertheless, several guideposts can be made out. In Germany, one important contemporary interpreter of Kant and the movement of <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a> he began is <a href="/wiki/Dieter_Henrich" title="Dieter Henrich">Dieter Henrich</a>, who has some work available in English. <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bounds_of_Sense" title="The Bounds of Sense">The Bounds of Sense</a></i> (1969) played a significant role in determining the contemporary reception of Kant in England and America. More recent interpreters of note in the English-speaking world include <a href="/wiki/Lewis_White_Beck" title="Lewis White Beck">Lewis White Beck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bennett_(philosopher)" title="Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)">Jonathan Bennett</a>, Henry Allison, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Paul Guyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a>, Stephen Palmquist, <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Pippin" title="Robert B. Pippin">Robert B. Pippin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Roger Scruton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Makkreel" title="Rudolf Makkreel">Rudolf Makkreel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9atrice_Longuenesse" title="Béatrice Longuenesse">Béatrice Longuenesse</a>.</p>
<div class="refbegin" style="">
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General_introductions_to_his_thought">General introductions to his thought</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: General introductions to his thought">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Broad, C. D.</a> <i>Kant: an Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1978. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521217555" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-21755-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521292654" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-29265-4</a></li>
<li>Gardner, Sebastian. <i>Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 1999. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/041511909X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-11909-X</a></li>
<li>Martin, Gottfried. <i>Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>, 1955 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780837171548" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8371-7154-8</a> (elucidates Kant's most fundamental concepts in their historical context)</li>
<li>Perez, Daniel Omar. <i>Kant e o problema da significação</i>. Curitiba: Editora Champagnat, 2008. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788572921879" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-85-7292-187-9</a> (Portuguese)</li>
<li>Palmquist, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1"><i>Kant's System of Perspectives</i></a><i>: an architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy</i>. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1993. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0819189278" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8191-8927-8</a> (for availability see link)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/T._K._Seung" title="T. K. Seung">Seung, T. K.</a> 2007. <i>Kant: a Guide for the Perplexed</i>. London: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826485804" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8264-8580-4</a></li>
<li>Satyananda Giri. <i>Kant</i>. Durham, CT: Strategic Publishing Group, 2010. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781609116866" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-60911-686-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton, Roger</a>. <i>Kant: a Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192801996" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-280199-6</a> (provides a brief account of his life, and a lucid introduction to the three major critiques)</li>
<li>Uleman, Jennifer. <i>An Introduction to Kant's Moral Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2010. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521136440" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-521-13644-0</a></li>
<li>Luchte, James. <i>Kant's Critique of Pure Reason</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>, 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826493224" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0826493224</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Biography_and_historical_context">Biography and historical context</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Biography and historical context">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Bader, Ralph (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp.&#160;269–71. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4">978-1-4129-6580-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Kant%2C+Immanuel+%281724%931804%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Ralph&amp;rft.aulast=Bader&amp;rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&amp;rft.pages=269-71&amp;rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&amp;rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Beck, Lewis White. <i>Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors.</i> Harvard University Press, 1969. (a survey of Kant's intellectual background)</li>
<li>Beiser, Frederick C. <i>The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte.</i> Harvard University Press, 1987.</li>
<li>Beiser, Frederick C. <i>German Idealism: the Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.</i> Harvard University Press, 2002</li>
<li>Cassirer, Ernst. <i>Kant's Life and Thought.</i> Translation of <i>Kants Leben und Lehre</i>. Trans., Jame S. Haden, intr. Stephan Körner. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, 1981.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Chamberlain, Houston Stewart.</a> <i>Immanuel Kant&#160;– a study and a comparison with <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, Bruno, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a></i>, the authorised translation from the German by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Redesdale" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Redesdale">Lord Redesdale</a>, with his 'Introduction', <a href="/wiki/The_Bodley_Head" title="The Bodley Head">The Bodley Head</a>, London, 1914, (2 volumes).</li>
<li>Gulyga, Arsenij. <i>Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought</i>. Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</li>
<li>Johnson, G.R. (ed.). <i>Kant on Swedenborg. Dreams of a Spirit-Seer and Other Writings</i>. Swedenborg Foundation, 2002. (new translation and analysis, many supplementary texts)</li>
<li>Kuehn, Manfred. <i>Kant: a Biography.</i> Cambridge University Press, 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497043" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-49704-3</a>. (now the standard biography of Kant in English)</li>
<li>Lehner, Ulrich L., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=73&amp;pid=26413">Kants Vorsehungskonzept auf dem Hintergrund der deutschen Schulphilosophie und -theologie</a> (Leiden: 2007) (Kant's concept of Providence and its background in German school philosophy and theology)</li>
<li>Pinkard, Terry. <i>German Philosophy, 1760–1860: the Legacy of Idealism.</i> Cambridge, 2002.</li>
<li>Sassen, Brigitte (ed.). <i>Kant's Early Critics: the Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy</i>, Cambridge, 2000.</li>
<li>Schabert, Joseph A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/americancatholic47philuoft#page/120/mode/2up"><i>"Kant's Influence on his Successors"</i></a>, <i>The American Catholic Quarterly Review</i>, Vol. XLVII, January 1922.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Collections_of_essays">Collections of essays</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: Collections of essays">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Firestone, Chris L. and Palmquist, Stephen (eds.). <i>Kant and the New Philosophy of Religion</i>. Notre Dame: Indiana University Press, 2006. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253218004" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-253-21800-4</a></li>
<li>Förster, Eckart (ed.). <i>Kant's Transcendental Deductions:. The Three 'Critiques' and the 'Opus Postumum'</i> Stanford: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, 1989. Includes an important essay by Dieter Henrich.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul &amp; Cohen, Ted (eds). <i>Essays in Kant's Aesthetics</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul (ed.). <i>Kant's Critique of the Power of Judgement. Critical Essays</i>, Lanham: Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2003.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Kant</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1992. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521365872" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-36587-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521367689" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-36768-9</a>. Excellent collection of papers that covers most areas of Kant's thought.</li>
<li>Mohanty, J.N. and Shahan, Robert W. (eds.). <i>Essays on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.</i> Norman: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>, 1982. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0806117826" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8061-1782-6</a></li>
<li>Phillips, Dewi et al. (eds.). <i>Kant and Kierkegaard on Religion.</i> New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2000, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0312232349" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-312-23234-9</a> Collection of essays about Kantian religion and its influence on Kierkegaardian and contemporary philosophy of religion.</li>
<li><i>Proceedings of the International Kant Congresses.</i> Several Congresses (numbered) edited by various publishers.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Theoretical_philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Theoretical philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Allison, Henry. <i>Kant's Transcendental Idealism.</i> New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983, 2004. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300036299" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-300-03629-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300030029" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-300-03002-9</a> (a very influential defense of Kant's idealism, recently revised).</li>
<li>Ameriks, Karl. <i>Kant's Theory of Mind: An Analysis of the Paralogisms of Pure Reason.</i> Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982 (one of the first detailed studies of the Dialectic in English).</li>
<li>Banham, Gary. <i>Kant's Transcendental Imagination</i> London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>. <i>Kant's Critical Philosophy</i>. Trans., Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>, 1984. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0816613419" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8166-1341-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0816614369" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8166-1436-9</a></li>
<li>Farias, Vanderlei de Oliveira. <i>Kants Realismus und der Aussenweltskeptizismus</i>. OLMS. Hildesheim, Zürich, New York. 2006. (German)</li>
<li>Gram, Moltke S. <i>The Transcendental Turn: The Foundation of Kant's Idealism.</i> Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1984. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813007879" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8130-0787-9</a></li>
<li>Greenberg, Robert. <i>Kant's Theory of A Priori Knowledge</i>. Penn State Press, 2001 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0271020830" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-271-02083-0</a></li>
<li>Guyer, Paul. <i>Kant and the Claims of Knowledge</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 (modern defense of the view that Kant's theoretical philosophy is a "patchwork" of ill-fitting arguments).</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul. <i>Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume</i>. Princeton University Press, 2008.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger, Martin</a>. <i>Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics</i>. Trans., Richard Taft. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253210674" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-253-21067-4</a></li>
<li>Henrich, Dieter. <i>The Unity of Reason: Essays on Kant's Philosophy.</i> Ed. with introduction by Richard L. Velkley; trans. Jeffrey Edwards <i>et al</i>. Harvard University Press, 1994. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674929055" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-674-92905-5</a></li>
<li>Kemp Smith, Norman. <i>A Commentary to Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason</i>. London: Macmillan, 1930 (influential commentary on the first Critique, recently reprinted).</li>
<li>Kitcher, Patricia. <i>Kant's Transcendental Psychology.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1990.</li>
<li>Longuenesse, Béatrice. <i>Kant and the Capacity to Judge.</i> <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1998. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691043485" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-691-04348-5</a>. (argues that the notion of judgment provides the key to understanding the overall argument of the first Critique)</li>
<li>Melnick, Arthur. <i>Kant's Analogies of Experience.</i> Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, 1973. (important study of Kant's Analogies, including his defense of the principle of causality)</li>
<li>Paton, H. J. <i>Kant's Metaphysic of Experience: a Commentary on the First Half of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>. Two volumes. London: Macmillan, 1936. (extensive study of Kant's theoretical philosophy)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Pippin" title="Robert B. Pippin">Pippin, Robert B.</a>. <i>Kant's Theory of Form: an Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason.</i> New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982. (influential examination of the formal character of Kant's work)</li>
<li>Sala, Giovanni. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bautz.de/neuerscheinungen-2005/3883092363.html">Kant, Lonergan und der christliche Glaube</a> (Nordhausen: Bautz, 2005), ed. by Ulrich L. Lehner and Ronald K. Tacelli</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer, Arthur</a>. <i>Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Erster Band. Anhang. Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie</i>. F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1859 (In English: Arthur <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, New York: Dover Press, Volume I, Appendix, "<a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Kantian_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy">Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy</a>", <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0486217612" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-486-21761-2</a>)</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Schott, Robin May (1997). <i>Feminist interpretations of Immanuel Kant</i>. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780271016764" title="Special:BookSources/9780271016764">9780271016764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.aufirst=Robin+May&amp;rft.aulast=Schott&amp;rft.btitle=Feminist+interpretations+of+Immanuel+Kant&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780271016764&amp;rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&amp;rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/T._K._Seung" title="T. K. Seung">Seung, T. K.</a> <i>Kant's Transcendental Logic</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969.</li>
<li>Sgarbi, Marco. <i>La Kritik der reinen Vernunft nel contesto della tradizione logica aristotelica.</i> Hildesheim, Olms 2010</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson, P. F</a>. <i>The Bounds of Sense: an essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.</i> Routledge, 1989 (the work that revitalized the interest of contemporary analytic philosophers in Kant).</li>
<li>Sturm, Thomas, <i>Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen.</i> Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3897856085" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 3897856085</a>; <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783897856080" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-3897856080</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/31397-kant-und-die-wissenschaften-vom-menschen/">review</a> (Treats Kant's anthropology and his views on psychology and history in relation to his philosophy of science.)</li>
<li>Tonelli, Giorgio. <i>Kant's Critique of Pure Reason within the Tradition of Modern Logic. A Commentary on its History.</i> Hildesheim, Olms 1994</li>
<li>Werkmeister, W.H., <i>Kant: The Architectonic and Development of His Philosophy</i>, Open Court Publishing Co., La Salle, Ill.; 1980 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0875483453" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-87548-345-3</a> (it treats, as a whole, the architectonic and development of Kant's philosophy from 1755 through the <i>Opus postumum</i>.)</li>
<li>Wolff, Robert Paul. <i>Kant's Theory of Mental Activity: a Commentary on the Transcendental Analytic of the Critique of Pure Reason.</i> Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963. (detailed and influential commentary on the first part of the Critique of Pure Reason)</li>
<li>Yovel, Yirmiahu. <i>Kant and the Philosophy of History</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8108(198304)92%3A2%3C288%3AKATPOH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9">review</a>)</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_philosophy">Practical philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section: Practical philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Allison, Henry. <i>Kant's Theory of Freedom.</i> Cambridge University Press 1990.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFAssiter2013" class="citation journal">Assiter, Alison (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1358246113000155">"Kant and Kierkegaard on freedom and evil"</a>. <i>Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement</i> (Cambridge Journals Online) <b>72</b>: 275–296. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS1358246113000155">10.1017/S1358246113000155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Kant+and+Kierkegaard+on+freedom+and+evil&amp;rft.aufirst=Alison&amp;rft.aulast=Assiter&amp;rft.date=2013-07&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2FS1358246113000155&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1358246113000155&amp;rft.jtitle=Royal+Institute+of+Philosophy+Supplement&amp;rft.pages=275-296&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=72" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Banham, Gary. <i>Kant's Practical Philosophy: From Critique to Doctrine.</i> Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.</li>
<li>Dorschel, Andreas. <i>Die idealistische Kritik des Willens: Versuch über die Theorie der praktischen Subjektivität bei Kant und Hegel.</i> Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1992 (Schriften zur Transzendentalphilosophie 10) <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3787310460" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 3-7873-1046-0</a>.</li>
<li>Koorsgaard, Christine M. <i>The Sources of Normativity.</i> Cambridge University Press, 1996.</li>
<li>Michalson, Gordon E. <i>Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration.</i> Cambridge University Press, 1990.</li>
<li>Michalson, Gordon E. <i>Kant and the Problem of God.</i> Blackwell Publishers, 1999.</li>
<li>Paton, H. J. <i>The Categorical Imperative: A Study in Kant's Moral Philosophy.</i> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a> 1971.</li>
<li>Rawls, John. <i>Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy.</i> Cambridge, 2000.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/T._K._Seung" title="T. K. Seung">Seung, T.K.</a> <i>Kant's Platonic Revolution in Moral and Political Philosophy.</i> Johns Hopkins, 1994.</li>
<li>Wolff, Robert Paul. <i>The Autonomy of Reason: A Commentary on Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.</i> New York: HarperCollins, 1974. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0061317926" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-06-131792-6</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Wood, Allen</a>. <i>Kant's Ethical Thought.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37" title="Edit section: Aesthetics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Allison, Henry. <i>Kant's Theory of Taste: A Reading of the Critique of Aesthetic Judgment</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.</li>
<li>Banham, Gary. <i>Kant and the Ends of Aesthetics</i>. London and New York: Macmillan Press, 2000.</li>
<li>Clewis, Robert. <i>The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.</li>
<li>Crawford, Donald. <i>Kant's Aesthetic Theory</i>. Wisconsin, 1974.</li>
<li>Doran, Robert. <i>The Theory of the Sublime from Longinus to Kant</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul. <i>Kant and the Claims of Taste</i>. Cambridge, MA and London, 1979.</li>
<li>Hammermeister, Kai. <i>The German Aesthetic Tradition</i>. Cambridge University Press, 2002.</li>
<li><i>Immanuel Kant</i> entry in Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Aesthetics" title="Encyclopedia of Aesthetics">Encyclopedia of Aesthetics</a></i>. New York, Oxford, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</li>
<li>Kaplama, Erman. <i>Cosmological Aesthetics through the Kantian Sublime and Nietzschean Dionysian</i>. Lanham: UPA, Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2014.</li>
<li>Makkreel, Rudolf, <i>Imagination and Interpretation in Kant</i>. Chicago, 1990.</li>
<li>McCloskey, Mary. <i>Kant's Aesthetic</i>. SUNY, 1987.</li>
<li>Schaper, Eva. <i>Studies in Kant's Aesthetics</i>. Edinburgh, 1979.</li>
<li>Zammito, John H. <i>The Genesis of Kant's <u>Critique of Judgment</u></i>. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1992.</li>
<li>Zupancic, Alenka. <i>Ethics of the Real: Kant and Lacan</i>. Verso, 2000.</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_religion">Philosophy of religion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38" title="Edit section: Philosophy of religion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Palmquist, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2">Kant's Critical Religion</a>: Volume Two of <i>Kant's System of Perspectives</i>. Ashgate, 2000. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/075461333X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-7546-1333-X</a></li>
<li>Perez, Daniel Omar. "Religión, Política y Medicina en Kant: El Conflicto de las Proposiciones". Cinta de Moebio. <i>Revista de Epistemologia de Ciencias Sociales</i>, v. 28, p.&#160;91–103, 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.facso.uchile.cl/publicaciones/moebio/28/perez.pdf">Uchile.cl</a> (Spanish)</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Perpetual_peace_and_international_relations">Perpetual peace and international relations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39" title="Edit section: Perpetual peace and international relations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hinsley" title="Harry Hinsley">Harry Hinsley</a>, <i>Power and the Pursuit of Peace</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1962.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Wight" title="Martin Wight">Martin Wight</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199273676.do"><i>Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant and Mazzini</i></a> ed. Gabriele Wight &amp; Brian Porter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFBennington2011" class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Bennington" title="Geoffrey Bennington">Bennington, Geoffrey</a> (December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0263276411423036">"Kant’s open secret"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Theory,_Culture_%26_Society" title="Theory, Culture &amp; Society">Theory, Culture &amp; Society</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Sage_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Sage Publications">Sage</a>) <b>28</b> (7–8): 26–40. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0263276411423036">10.1177/0263276411423036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Kant%99s+open+secret&amp;rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&amp;rft.aulast=Bennington&amp;rft.date=2011-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1177%2F0263276411423036&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0263276411423036&amp;rft.issue=7%938&amp;rft.jtitle=Theory%2C+Culture+%26+Society&amp;rft.pages=26-40&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=28" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_works">Other works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40" title="Edit section: Other works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Botul, Jean-Baptiste. <i>La vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant</i>. Paris, FR; Éd. Mille et une Nuits, 2008. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782842054243" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-2842054243</a></li>
<li>Caygill, Howard. <i>A Kant Dictionary</i>. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., US: Blackwell Reference, 1995. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631175342" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-631-17534-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631175350" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-631-17535-0</a></li>
<li>Derrida, Jacques. <i>Mochlos; or, The Conflict of the Faculties</i>. Columbia University, 1980.</li>
<li>Kelly, Michael. <i>Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism</i>, London: <a href="/wiki/Swan_Sonnenschein" class="mw-redirect" title="Swan Sonnenschein">Swan Sonnenschein</a> 1910. [Reprinted 2010 <a href="/wiki/Nabu_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu Press">Nabu Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781171707950" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1171707950</a>]</li>
<li>Mosser, Kurt. <i>Necessity and Possibility; The Logical Strategy of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Catholic University of America Press, 2008. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813215327" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8132-1532-7</a></li>
<li>Perez, D. O. . Os significados dos conceitos de hospitalidade em Kant e a problemática do estrangeiro. Revista Philosophica (Chile), v. 31, p.&#160;43–53, 2007. Também em Konvergencias, 2007, nro. 15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophica.ucv.cl/n31.htm">UCV.cl</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.konvergencias.net/danieloperez132.pdf">Konvergencias.net</a></li>
<li>Perez, D. O. A loucura como questão semântica:uma interpretação kantiana. Trans/Form/Ação, São Paulo, 32(1): 95–117, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scielo.br/pdf/trans/v32n1/07.pdf">Scielo.br</a></li>
<li>White, Mark D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Kantian-ethics-and-economics.php"><i>Kantian Ethics and Economics: Autonomy, Dignity, and Character</i></a>. Stanford University Press, 2011. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804768948" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8047-6894-8</a>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Kantian-ethics-and-economics.php">Reviewed in The Montreal Review</a>)</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_philosophy_with_a_Kantian_influence">Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41" title="Edit section: Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Guyer, Paul. <i>Kant and The Claims of Taste</i>. Harvard University Press, 1979. 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul. <i>Kant and The Claims of Knowledge</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul. <i>Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume</i>. Princeton University Press, 2008.</li>
<li>Hanna, Robert, <i>Kant and the Foundations of Analytic Philosophy</i>. Clarendon Press, 2004.</li>
<li>Hanna, Robert, <i>Kant, Science, and Human Nature</i>. Clarendon Press, 2006.</li>
<li>Herman, Barbara. <i>The Practice of Moral Judgement</i>. Harvard University Press, 1993.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHill1987" class="citation journal">Hill, Judith M. (June 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x">"Pornography and degradation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Hypatia:_A_Journal_of_Feminist_Philosophy" title="Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy">Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley</a>) <b>2</b> (2): 39–54. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x">10.1111/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3810015">3810015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant&amp;rft.atitle=Pornography+and+degradation&amp;rft.aufirst=Judith+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Hill&amp;rft.date=1987-06&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3810015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Hypatia%3A+A+Journal+of+Feminist+Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=39-54&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=2" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> (A Kantian approach to the issue of pornography and degradation.)</li>
<li>Korsgaard, Christine. <i>Creating the Kingdom of Ends</i>. Cambridge; New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 1996. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521496446" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-49644-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521499623" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-49962-3</a> (pbk.) (not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">McDowell, John</a>. <i>Mind and World.</i> Harvard University Press, 1994. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674576098" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-674-57609-8</a>. (offers a Kantian solution to a dilemma in contemporary epistemology regarding the relation between mind and world)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit, Derek</a>. <i>On What Matters</i> (2 vols.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2011. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199265923" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-926592-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, Steven</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Stuff_of_Thought" title="The Stuff of Thought">The Stuff of Thought</a></i>. Viking Press, 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780670063277" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-670-06327-7</a>. (Chapter 4 "Cleaving the Air" discusses Kant's anticipation of modern cognitive science)</li>
<li>Wood, Allen. <i>Kant's Ethical Thought</i>. Cambridge; New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 1999. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052164836X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-64836-X</a>. (comprehensive, in-depth study of Kant's ethics, with emphasis on formula of humanity as most accurate formulation of the categorical imperative)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Kant,+Immanuel">Works by Immanuel Kant</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Kant%2C%20Immanuel%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Immanuel%20Kant%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Kant%2C%20Immanuel%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Immanuel%20Kant%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Kant%2C%20I%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Immanuel%20Kant%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Kant%2C%20Immanuel%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Immanuel%20Kant%22%29%20OR%20%28%221724-1804%22%20AND%20Kant%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Immanuel Kant</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librivox.org/author/1312">Works by Immanuel Kant</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" width="15" height="15" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kantpapers.org">KantPapers</a>, authors and papers database powered by PhilPapers, focused on Kant, and located at Cornell University</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/311398/Immanuel-Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> at the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=k&amp;word=KANT.IMMANUEL">Immanuel Kant</a> in the Christian Cyclopedia</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/Kant/">Works by Immanuel Kant</a> at <a href="/wiki/Duisburg-Essen_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Duisburg-Essen University">Duisburg-Essen University</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1/KSPglos.html">Stephen Palmquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/kant/index.htm">Kant's Ethical Theory</a> – Kantian ethics explained, applied and evaluated</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.wofford.edu/kaycd/deontology/">Notes on Utilitarianism</a> – A conveniently brief survey of Kant's Utilitarianism</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kantstudiesonline.net/KSO_Home.html"><i>Kant Studies Online</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/DB047">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (14 sections on Kant)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com">Readable versions of Prolegomena, Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals, Critique of Pure Reason, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, The Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible World, Perpetual Peace, and Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason.</a> (J. Bennett translations)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sammlungen.hu-berlin.de/dokumente/7806/">Kant's Death Mask</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manchester.edu/kant">Kant in the Classroom</a> – Background information for Kant's lectures</li>
<li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> has multiple entries on Kant:
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/">Immanuel Kant: An Overview</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantaest/">Immanuel Kant: Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/">Immanuel Kant: Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/rad-evil/">Immanuel Kant: Radical Evil</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kant-rel/">Immanuel Kant: Religion</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> has several entries on Kant:
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-development/">Kant's Philosophical Development</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-reason/">Kant's Account of Reason</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-metaphysics/">Kant's Critique of Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-judgment/">Kant's Theory of Judgment</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental/">Kant's Transcendental Arguments</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/">Kant's View of the Mind and Consciousness of Self</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-spacetime/">Kant's Views on Space and Time</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-aesthetics/">Kant's Aesthetics and Teleology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mathematics/">Kant's Philosophy of Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-science/">Kant's Philosophy of Science</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/">Kant's Philosophy of Religion</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/">Kant's Moral Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/">Kant's Social and Political Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-leibniz/">Leibniz's Influence on Kant</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-hume-causality/">Kant and Hume on Causality</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-hume-morality/">Kant and Hume on Morality</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
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</td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
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</td>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
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</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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</table>
</td>
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<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
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<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%">The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div>
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<div style="font-size:114%">Topics</div>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_in_the_Age_of_the_Enlightenment" title="Atheism in the Age of the Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free markets</a></li>
<li><span lang="he-Latn" xml:lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></span></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Thinkers</div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">France</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Étienne Bonnot de Condillac</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Claude Adrien Helvétius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Germany</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neophytos_Doukas" title="Neophytos Doukas">Neophytos Doukas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Theoklitos Farmakidis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Rigas Feraios</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Theophilos Kairis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Adamantios Korais</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Ireland</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Italy</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Filangieri" title="Gaetano Filangieri">Gaetano Filangieri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Antonio Genovesi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Pietro Verri</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Czacki" title="Tadeusz Czacki">Tadeusz Czacki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Stanisław Konarski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Jędrzej Śniadecki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Stanisław Staszic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Józef Wybicki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Stanis%C5%82aw_Za%C5%82uski" title="Andrzej Stanisław Załuski">Andrzej Stanisław Załuski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Andrzej_Za%C5%82uski" title="Józef Andrzej Załuski">Józef Andrzej Załuski</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Portugal</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">United Kingdom<br />
(<a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a>)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Adam Ferguson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
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<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
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<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Metaphysicians</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">Genetic epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representative_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Representative realism">Representative realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" title="Speculative reason">Speculative reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alethiology" title="Alethiology">Alethiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-epistemology" title="Meta-epistemology">Meta-epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Epistemology" title="Portal:Epistemology">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">Theory choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">Theory-ladenness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Metatheory_of_science" title="Category:Metatheory of science">Metatheory<br />
of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li>{<a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a>}</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Philosophy of</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">thermal and statistical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">Motion</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_environment" title="Philosophy of environment">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">Related topics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a> by era</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Ancient</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurians</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Classical modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Late modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy_of_science" title="Portal:Philosophy of science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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</table>
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<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Template:Social and political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social and political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
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</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_and_political_philosophers" title="List of social and political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Alinsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Gabriel_Ambroise_de_Bonald" title="Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald">Bonald</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bosanquet_(philosopher)" title="Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)">Bosanquet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milovan_%C4%90ilas" class="mw-redirect" title="Milovan ?ilas">?ilas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justus_M%C3%B6ser" title="Justus Möser">Möser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Plamenatz" title="John Plamenatz">Plamenatz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prabhat_Ranjan_Sarkar" title="Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar">Sarkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Spirito" title="Ugo Spirito">Spirito</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vivekananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_theories" title="Category:Social theories">Social theories</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminist political theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
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</td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Social concepts</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Four occupations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">more...</a></b></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_love" title="Philosophy of love">Philosophy of love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Philosophy of sex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Portal:Social and political philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Social_and_political" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Social and political">Task Force</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Ethics of care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering or Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">full index...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Philosophers</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">William Frankena</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">more...</a></b></li>
</ul>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
</ul>
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<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ethics" title="Portal:Ethics">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Religious belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit" title="Spirit">Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Conceptions of God</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian view of God">Aristotelian view</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maltheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltheism">Maltheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Being" title="Supreme Being">Supreme Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="God in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kal%C4%81m_cosmological_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Kal?m cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_Universe" title="Fine-tuned Universe">Fine-tuning of the Universe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_Wager" title="Pascal's Wager">Pascal's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_a_proper_basis" title="Argument from a proper basis">Proper basis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 Gambit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnostic_existentialism" title="Agnostic existentialism">Agnostic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language-game_(philosophy)" title="Language-game (philosophy)">Language-game</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />
of religion</a></div>
<br />
(by date active)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Ancient<br />
and<br />
Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Enlightenment</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />
1850</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />
1900</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W. K. Clifford</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />
postwar</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />
1990<br />
2010</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions" title="History of religions">History of religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_science_of_religion" title="Political science of religion">Political science of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Hans Urs von Balthasar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Clive Bell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bosanquet_(philosopher)" title="Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)">Bernard Bosanquet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bullough" title="Edward Bullough">Edward Bullough</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Ananda Coomaraswamy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Arthur Danto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfus" title="Hubert Dreyfus">Hubert Dreyfus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Curt_John_Ducasse" title="Curt John Ducasse">Curt John Ducasse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_de_Duve" title="Thierry de Duve">Thierry de Duve</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Roger Fry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Immanuel Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Paul Klee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Theodor Lipps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Margolis" title="Joseph Margolis">Joseph Margolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Jacques Maritain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Munro_(art_historian)" title="Thomas Munro (art historian)">Thomas Munro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">José Ortega y Gasset</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dewitt_H._Parker" title="Dewitt H. Parker">Dewitt H. Parker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Prall" title="David Prall">David Prall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Lansing_Raymond" title="George Lansing Raymond">George Lansing Raymond</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Roger Scruton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Singer" title="Irving Singer">Irving Singer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Weitz" title="Morris Weitz">Morris Weitz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wollheim" title="Richard Wollheim">Richard Wollheim</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></i></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic emotions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Aesthetic interpretation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">Rasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Aesthetics of music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminist aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gastronomy" title="Gastronomy">Gastronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting" title="History of painting">History of painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Literary_merit" title="Literary merit">Literary merit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_architecture" title="Mathematics and architecture">Mathematics and architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics and art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">Music theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_painting" title="Theory of painting">Theory of painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index of aesthetics articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Aesthetics" title="Portal:Aesthetics">Portal</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Allan_(legal_philosopher)" title="Trevor Allan (legal philosopher)">Allan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Amar" title="Akhil Amar">Amar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Betti" title="Emilio Betti">Betti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bickel" title="Alexander Bickel">Bickel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Castanheira_Neves" title="António Castanheira Neves">Castanheira Neves</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zechariah_Chafee" title="Zechariah Chafee">Chafee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Coleman" title="Jules Coleman">Coleman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Del_Vecchio" title="Giorgio Del Vecchio">Del Vecchio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Feinberg" title="Joel Feinberg">Feinberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Fineman" class="mw-redirect" title="Martha Fineman">Fineman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_N._Frank" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome N. Frank">Frank</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Gardner_(lawyer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Gardner (lawyer)">Gardner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Green_(philosopher)" title="Leslie Green (philosopher)">Green</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Germain_Grisez" title="Germain Grisez">Grisez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Hand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Newcomb_Hohfeld" title="Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld">Hohfeld</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.">Holmes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Kant</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_K%C3%B6chler" title="Hans Köchler">Köchler</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Kramer" title="Matthew Kramer">Kramer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Lombard%C3%ADa" title="Pedro Lombardía">Lombardía</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Vilhelm_Lundstedt" title="Anders Vilhelm Lundstedt">Lundstedt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lyons_(philosopher)" title="David Lyons (philosopher)">Lyons</a></li>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%91%E1%8A%A4%E1%88%8D_%E1%8A%AB%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B5" title="አማኑኤ? ካንት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="إيمانويل كانت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mmanuel_Kant" title="İmmanuel Kant – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="ইমান?য়েল কান?ট – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Імануіл Кант – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Імануіл Кант – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl"><a href="//bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Bikol Central" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Имануел Кант – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – бур?ад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Бур?ад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BB_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Ιμμάνουελ Καντ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml"><a href="//eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="eml" hreflang="eml">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant 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href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="康德 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%A7%88%EB%88%84%EC%97%98_%EC%B9%B8%ED%8A%B8" title="?마누엘 칸트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF" title="Իմանուիլ Կանտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इमान??ल कांट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98" title="עמנו?ל ק?נט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಇಮ?ಯಾನ?ಯ?ಅಲ? ಕಾಂಟ? – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="იმ?ნუელ კ?ნტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw"><a href="//rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw">Kinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj"><a href="//mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="//lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lrc"><a href="//lrc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%99%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ئیمانوٙئل کانت – Northern Luri" lang="lrc" hreflang="lrc">لۊری شومالی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kantius" title="Immanuel Kantius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanuels_Kants" title="Imanuels Kants – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><a href="//lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="//lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Имануел Кант – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇമ?മാന?വേൽ കാന?റ? – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a href="//mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इम?मॅन?य??ल कांट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf"><a href="//xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="იმ?ნუელ კ?ნტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf">მ?რგ?ლური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B7" title="ايمانويل كانط – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9B%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%80%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA" title="အင်မနျူရယ် ကန့် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="//nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – N?huatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">N?huatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इमान??ल क?यान?ट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%9E%E3%83%8C%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88" title="イマヌエル・カント – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuil_Kant" title="Immanuil Kant – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A4" title="ਇਮੈਨੂਅਲ ਕਾਂਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9" title="کانٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%90%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="امانو?ل کانت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanyuel_Kant" title="Imanyuel Kant – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi"><a href="//tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="//kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a href="//rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Іммануіл Кант – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इमान?य??ल काण?ट – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="//sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8E%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ئیمانوێل کانت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Имануел Кант – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D" title="இம?மான?வேல? கண?ட? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="//kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D" title="ఇమ?మాన?య?యెల? కాంట? – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెల?గ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5_%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="อิมมานูเอล คานต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%97%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Іммануїл Кант – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9" title="کانٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><a href="//vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant_Immanuel%27" title="Kant Immanuel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo"><a href="//vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanti_Immanuel" title="Kanti Immanuel – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努爾·康德 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98" title="?ימ?נועל ק?נט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="康德 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="//diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea"><a href="//zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="//bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanoel%C4%97s_Kants" title="Imanoelės Kants – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इम?मान??ल कान?ट – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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