
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" dir="ltr" class="client-nojs">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8"/>
<title>Idealism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</title>
<script>document.documentElement.className = document.documentElement.className.replace( /(^|\s)client-nojs(\s|$)/, "$1client-js$2" );</script>
<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Idealism","wgTitle":"Idealism","wgCurRevisionId":728603870,"wgRevisionId":728603870,"wgArticleId":15428,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: external links","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016","Articles containing German-language text","Pages incorrectly using the quote template","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010","Use dmy dates from July 2012","Idealism","Monism","Ontology","Western philosophy"],"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgMonthNamesShort":["","Jan","Feb","Mar","Apr","May","Jun","Jul","Aug","Sep","Oct","Nov","Dec"],"wgRelevantPageName":"Idealism","wgRelevantArticleId":15428,"wgRequestId":"V39pkApAMFUAAIbHL4MAAAAA","wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgWikiEditorEnabledModules":{"toolbar":true,"dialogs":true,"preview":false,"publish":false},"wgBetaFeaturesFeatures":[],"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","usePageImages":true,"usePageDescriptions":true},"wgPreferredVariant":"en","wgRelatedArticles":null,"wgRelatedArticlesUseCirrusSearch":true,"wgRelatedArticlesOnlyUseCirrusSearch":false,"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1,"quality":2,"pristine":3}}},"wgStableRevisionId":null,"wgCategoryTreePageCategoryOptions":"{\"mode\":0,\"hideprefix\":20,\"showcount\":true,\"namespaces\":false}","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCentralNoticeCategoriesUsingLegacy":["Fundraising","fundraising"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q33442","wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgVisualEditorToolbarScrollOffset":0});mw.loader.implement("user.options",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.options.set({"variant":"en"});});mw.loader.implement("user.tokens",function ( $, jQuery, require, module ) {
mw.user.tokens.set({"editToken":"+\\","patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"});/*@nomin*/;

});mw.loader.load(["mediawiki.page.startup","mediawiki.legacy.wikibits","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.head","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.uls.init","ext.uls.interface","ext.quicksurveys.init","mw.MediaWikiPlayer.loader","mw.PopUpMediaTransform","ext.centralNotice.bannerController","skins.vector.js"]);});</script>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.gadget.DRN-wizard%2CReferenceTooltips%2Ccharinsert%2Cfeatured-articles-links%2CrefToolbar%2Cswitcher%2Cteahouse%7Cext.tmh.thumbnail.styles%7Cext.uls.nojs%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cmediawiki.legacy.commonPrint%2Cshared%7Cmediawiki.raggett%2CsectionAnchor%7Cmediawiki.skinning.interface%7Cskins.vector.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector"/>
<meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=site.styles&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector"/>
<script async="" src="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=startup&amp;only=scripts&amp;skin=vector"></script>
<meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.28.0-wmf.9"/>
<meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"/>
<link rel="alternate" href="android-app://org.wikipedia/http/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism"/>
<link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit"/>
<link rel="edit" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit"/>
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"/>
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"/>
<link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="Wikipedia (en)"/>
<link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"/>
<link rel="copyright" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/"/>
<link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism"/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" />
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Idealism rootpage-Idealism skin-vector action-view">
		<div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main">
			<a id="top"></a>

							<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
						<div class="mw-indicators">
</div>
			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Idealism</h1>
									<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
									<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
								<div id="contentSub"></div>
												<div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump">
					Jump to:					<a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, 					<a href="#p-search">search</a>
				</div>
				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">This article is about the philosophical notion of idealism. For the ethical principle, see <a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal (ethics)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Idealism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Idealism (disambiguation)">Idealism (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px;"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg/240px-James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg" width="240" height="340" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg/360px-James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg/480px-James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="708" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Hopwood_Jeans.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The 20th-century British scientist Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Hopwood_Jeans" title="James Hopwood Jeans">James Jeans</a> wrote that "the Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine."</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <b>idealism</b> is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemologically</a>, idealism manifests as a <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> As an <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Brittanica_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brittanica-2">[2]</a></sup> Idealism thus rejects <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualist</a> theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind.</p>
<p>The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India and Greece. The <a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" title="Hindu idealism">Hindu idealists</a> in India and the Greek <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a> gave <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheistic</a> arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-Noir.C3.A9_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noir.C3.A9-3">[3]</a></sup> In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yog?c?ra</a> school, which arose within <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhism in India in the 4th century CE,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> based its "mind-only" idealism to a greater extent on <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> analyses of personal experience. This turn toward the <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">subjective</a> anticipated <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, who revived idealism in 18th-century Europe by employing skeptical arguments against <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>.</p>
<p>Beginning with <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or "ideal" character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic and <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivist</a> schools ranging from <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>. The historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> assumptions, such as <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>.</p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definitions"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definitions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Classical_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Classical idealism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Platonism_and_neoplatonism"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Platonism and neoplatonism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Subjective_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Subjective idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Transcendental_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Transcendental idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Objective_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Objective idealism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Absolute_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Absolute idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Actual_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Actual idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Pluralistic_idealism"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Pluralistic idealism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><i>Idealism</i> is a term with several related meanings. It comes via <i><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">idea</a></i> from the Greek <i>idein</i> (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's <a href="/wiki/Idealism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism (international relations)">political idealism</a>, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatists</a>, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></p>
<p>Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed "idealist". <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysical</a> idealism is an <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> doctrine that holds that reality itself is <a href="/wiki/Incorporeality" title="Incorporeality">incorporeal</a> or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic. <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a> affirms that <a href="/wiki/Abstract_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract object">abstractions</a> are more basic to reality than the things we perceive, while <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">subjective idealists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalists</a> tend to privilege sensory experience over abstract reasoning. <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemological</a> idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Brittanica_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brittanica-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
<p>Subjective idealists like <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> are <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realists</a> in terms of a mind-independent world, whereas <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> are strong <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skeptics</a> of such a world, affirming epistemological and not metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines <i>idealism</i> as "the assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> He claimed that, according to <i>idealism</i>, "the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof. On the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense (of myself and state) is clear immediately through consciousness." <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. <a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective idealists</a> make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Thus <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our subjective awareness—a rejection of epistemological idealism—but propose that this reality is grounded in ideal entities, a form of metaphysical idealism. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental entities were non-mental abstract <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">forms</a>, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and concrete <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">monads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Leibniz_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Leibniz-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>As a rule, transcendental idealists like Kant affirm idealism's epistemic side without committing themselves to whether reality is <i>ultimately</i> mental; objective idealists like Plato affirm reality's metaphysical basis in the mental or abstract without restricting their epistemology to ordinary experience; and subjective idealists like Berkeley affirm both metaphysical and epistemological idealism.<sup id="cite_ref-Gron_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gron-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Classical_idealism">Classical idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Classical idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Monistic idealism holds that consciousness, not matter, is the ground of all being. It is <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monist</a> because it holds that there is only one type of thing in the universe and idealist because it holds that one thing to be consciousness.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> (480 BC) was known as "<i>Nous</i>" ("Mind") because he taught that "all things" were created by Mind, that Mind held the cosmos together and gave human beings a connection to the cosmos or a pathway to the divine.</p>
<p>Many religious philosophies are specifically idealist. The belief that beings with knowledge (God/s, angels &amp; spirits) preceded insentient matter seems to suggest that an experiencing subject is a necessary reality. <a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" title="Hindu idealism">Hindu idealism</a> is central to Vedanta philosophy and to such schools as <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmir Shaivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Proponents include <a href="/wiki/P.R._Sarkar" class="mw-redirect" title="P.R. Sarkar">P.R. Sarkar</a> and his disciple <a href="/wiki/Sohail_Inayatullah" title="Sohail Inayatullah">Sohail Inayatullah</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> theologians have held idealist views, often based on <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>, despite the influence of Aristotelian <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> from the 12th century onward. Later western theistic idealism such as that of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Hermann Lotze</a> offers a theory of the "world ground" in which all things find their unity: it has been widely accepted by Protestant theologians.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the <a href="/wiki/New_Thought_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="New Thought Movement">New Thought Movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Unity_Church" title="Unity Church">Unity Church</a>, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a> includes a form of idealism: it teaches that all that truly exists is God and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected (both conceptually and in terms of human experience) through a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a>, a Ming Chinese neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general, held that objects do not exist entirely apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. It is not the world that shapes the mind but the mind that gives reason to the world, so the mind alone is the source of all reason, having an inner light, an innate moral goodness and understanding of what is good.</p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Consciousness-only" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness-only">consciousness-only</a> approach of the <a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yog?c?ra">Yog?c?ra</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a> is not true metaphysical idealism<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> as Yog?c?ra thinkers did not focus on consciousness to assert it as ultimately real, it is only conventionally real since it arises from moment to moment due to fluctuating causes and conditions and is significant because it is the cause of <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a> and hence <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" title="Dukkha">suffering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Platonism_and_neoplatonism">Platonism and neoplatonism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Platonism and neoplatonism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">theory of forms</a> or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic solids">platonic solids</a> in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">universals</a> existing independently of any particular instance.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Arne Grøn calls this doctrine "the classic example of a metaphysical idealism as a <i>transcendent</i> idealism",<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> while Simone Klein calls Plato "the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism". Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are perceived directly by our rational soul. Plato was therefore a metaphysical and epistemological <a href="/wiki/Dualist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualist">dualist</a>, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Plato's thought cannot therefore be counted as idealist in the modern sense, although quantum physics' assertion that man's consciousness is an immutable and primary requisite for not merely perceiving but shaping matter, and thus his reality, would give more credence to Plato's dualist position.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>With the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonist">neoplatonist</a> <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, wrote Nathaniel Alfred Boll; "there even appears, probably for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, <i>idealism</i> that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught... that the soul has made the world by stepping from <a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">eternity</a> into <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>...".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Similarly, in regard to passages from the <a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a>, "The only space or place of the world is the soul" and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul",<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus,<sup id="cite_ref-Noir.C3.A9_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noir.C3.A9-3">[3]</a></sup> However, Plotinus does not address whether we know external objects, unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Subjective_idealism">Subjective idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Subjective idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective idealism</a></div>
<p>Subjective Idealism (<a href="/wiki/Immaterialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Immaterialism">immaterialism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a>) describes a relationship between experience and the world in which objects are no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. Proponents include Berkeley,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Bishop of Cloyne, an Anglo-Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called <a href="/wiki/Immaterialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Immaterialism">immaterialism</a>, later referred to as "subjective idealism", contending that individuals can only know sensations and ideas of objects directly, not abstractions such as "matter", and that ideas also depend upon being perceived for their very existence - <i>esse est percipi</i>; "to be is to be perceived".</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Collier" title="Arthur Collier">Arthur Collier</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> published similar assertions though there seems to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. The only knowable reality is the represented image of an external object. Matter as a cause of that image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world as absolute matter unrelated to an observer does not exist as far as we are concerned. The universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. Collier was influenced by <i>An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World</i> by "<a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Platonist">Cambridge Platonist</a>" <a href="/wiki/John_Norris_(philosopher)" title="John Norris (philosopher)">John Norris</a> (1701).</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>'s popular book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Problems_of_Philosophy" title="The Problems of Philosophy">The Problems of Philosophy</a></i> highlights Berkeley's tautological premise for advancing idealism;</p>
<dl>
<dd>"If we say that the things known must be in the mind, we are either unduly limiting the mind's power of knowing, or we are uttering a mere tautology. We are uttering a mere tautology if we mean by 'in the mind' the same as by 'before the mind', i.e. if we mean merely being apprehended by the mind. But if we mean this, we shall have to admit that what, in this sense, is in the mind, may nevertheless be not mental. Thus when we realize the nature of knowledge, Berkeley's argument is seen to be wrong in substance as well as in form, and his grounds for supposing that 'idea'-i.e. the objects apprehended-must be mental, are found to have no validity whatever. Hence his grounds in favour of the idealism may be dismissed."</dd>
</dl>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Stove" title="David Stove">David Stove</a> harshly criticized philosophical idealism, arguing that it rests on what he called "the worst argument in the world".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> Stove claims that Berkeley tried to derive a non-tautological conclusion from tautological reasoning. He argued that in Berkeley's case the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a> is not obvious and this is because one premise is ambiguous between one meaning which is <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautological</a> and another which, Stove argues, is <a href="/wiki/Logical_equivalence" title="Logical equivalence">logically equivalent</a> to the conclusion.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Alan_Musgrave" title="Alan Musgrave">Alan Musgrave</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> argues that conceptual idealists compound their mistakes with use/mention confusions;</p>
<dl>
<dd>Santa Claus the person does not exist.</dd>
<dd>"Santa Claus" the name/concept/fairy tale does exist because adults tell children this every Christmas season (the distinction is highlighted by using quotation-marks when referring only to the name and not the object)</dd>
</dl>
<p>and proliferation of hyphenated entities such as "thing-in-itself" (Immanuel Kant), "things-as-interacted-by-us" (<a href="/wiki/Arthur_Fine" title="Arthur Fine">Arthur Fine</a>), "table-of-commonsense" and "table-of-physics" (Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>) which are "warning signs" for conceptual idealism according to Musgrave because they allegedly do not exist but only highlight the numerous ways in which people come to know the world. This argument does not take into account the issues pertaining to hermeneutics, especially at the backdrop of analytic philosophy. Musgrave criticized <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist">Postmodernist</a> philosophy in general for confusion of use and mention.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/A._A._Luce" title="A. A. Luce">A. A. Luce</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(philosopher)" title="John Foster (philosopher)">John Foster</a> are other subjectivists.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Luce, in <i>Sense without Matter</i> (1954), attempts to bring Berkeley up to date by modernizing his vocabulary and putting the issues he faced in modern terms, and treats the Biblical account of matter and the psychology of perception and nature. Foster's <i>The Case for Idealism</i> argues that the physical world is the logical creation of natural, non-logical constraints on human <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">sense-experience</a>. Foster's latest defense of his views is in his book <i>A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism</i>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Brunton" title="Paul Brunton">Paul Brunton</a>, a British philosopher, mystic, traveler, and guru, taught a type of idealism called <a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(philosophy)" title="Mentalism (philosophy)">"mentalism"</a>, similar to that of Bishop Berkeley, proposing a master world-image, projected or manifested by a world-mind, and an infinite number of individual minds participating. A tree does not cease to exist if nobody sees it because the world-mind is projecting the idea of the tree to all minds.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, criticizing some versions of idealism, summarizes two important arguments for subjective idealism. The first is based on our perception of reality:</p>
<dl>
<dd>(1) <i>All we have access to in perception are the contents of our own experience</i> and</dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>(2) <i>The only epistemic basis for claims about the external world are our perceptual experiences</i></dd>
</dl>
<p>therefore;</p>
<dl>
<dd>(3) <i>The only reality we can meaningfully speak of is that of perceptual experience <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></i></dd>
</dl>
<p>Whilst agreeing with (2) Searle argues that (1) is false and points out that (3) does not follow from (1) and (2). The second argument runs as follows;</p>
<dl>
<dd><i>Premise: Any cognitive state occurs as part of a set of cognitive states and within a cognitive system</i></dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd><i>Conclusion 1: It is impossible to get outside all cognitive states and systems to survey the relationships between them and the reality they cognize</i></dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd><i>Conclusion 2: There is no cognition of any reality that exists independently of cognition<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></i></dd>
</dl>
<p>Searle contends that <i>Conclusion 2</i> does not follow from the premises.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a> is a subjectivist position in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> that holds that what one knows about an object exists only in one's mind. Proponents include <a href="/wiki/Brand_Blanshard" title="Brand Blanshard">Brand Blanshard</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Transcendental_idealism">Transcendental idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Transcendental idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></div>
<p>Transcendental idealism, founded by Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century, maintains that the mind shapes the world we perceive into the form of space-and-time.</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>...&#160;if I remove the thinking subject, the whole material world must at once vanish because it is nothing but a phenomenal appearance in the sensibility of ourselves as a subject, and a manner or species of representation.</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> A383</cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p>The 2nd edition (1787) contained a <i>Refutation of Idealism</i> to distinguish his transcendental idealism from <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sceptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sceptic">Sceptical</a> Idealism and Berkeley's anti-realist strain of <a href="/wiki/Subjective_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective Idealism">Subjective Idealism</a>. The section <i>Paralogisms of Pure Reason</i> is an implicit critique of Descartes' idealism. Kant says that it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object (Descartes' <i><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">cogito ergo sum</a></i>) purely from "the spontaneity of thought". Kant focused on ideas drawn from British philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, Berkeley and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a> but distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties;</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>The dictum of all genuine idealists, from the <a href="/wiki/Eleatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleatic">Eleatic</a> school to Bishop Berkeley, is contained in this formula: “All knowledge through the <a href="/wiki/Senses" class="mw-redirect" title="Senses">senses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> is nothing but sheer <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusion</a>, and only in the ideas of the pure <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> is there <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>.? The principle that throughout dominates and determines my [transcendental] idealism is, on the contrary: “All knowledge of things merely from pure understanding or pure reason is nothing but sheer illusion, and only in experience is there truth.?</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— <i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolegomena">Prolegomena</a></i>, 374</cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p>Kant distinguished between things as they appear to an observer and things in themselves, "that is, things considered without regard to whether and how they may be given to us".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> We cannot approach the <i><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">noumenon</a></i>, the "thing in Itself" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Ding an sich</i></span>) without our own mental world. He added that the mind is not a <a href="/wiki/Blank_slate" class="mw-redirect" title="Blank slate">blank slate</a>, <i>tabula rasa</i> but rather comes equipped with categories for organising our sense impressions.</p>
<p>In the first volume of his <i>Parerga and Paralipomena</i>, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> of the Doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/The_Real" title="The Real">Real</a>". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>. The <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> that appears is only a <a href="/wiki/Representation_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Representation (psychology)">representation</a> or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. He offered a history of the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of the "ideal" as "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image".</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>[T]rue philosophy must at all costs be <i>idealistic</i>; indeed, it must be so merely to be honest. For nothing is more certain than that no one ever came out of himself in order to identify himself immediately with things different from him; but everything of which he has certain, sure, and therefore immediate knowledge, lies within his consciousness. Beyond this consciousness, therefore, there can be no <i>immediate</i> certainty ... There can never be an existence that is objective absolutely and in itself; such an existence, indeed, is positively inconceivable. For the objective, as such, always and essentially has its existence in the consciousness of a subject; it is therefore the subject's representation, and consequently is conditioned by the subject, and moreover by the subject's forms of representation, which belong to the subject and not to the object.</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i>, Vol. II, Ch. 1</cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bernard_Renouvier" title="Charles Bernard Renouvier">Charles Bernard Renouvier</a> was the first Frenchman after Nicolas Malebranche to formulate a complete idealistic system, and had a vast influence on the development of French thought. His system is based on Immanuel Kant's, as his chosen term "néo-criticisme" indicates; but it is a transformation rather than a continuation of Kantianism.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> argued that Kant commits an agnostic <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a> and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the <i>source</i> of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> The famous "thing-in-itself" was called a product of philosophical habit, which seeks to introduce a grammatical subject: because wherever there is cognition, there must be a <i>thing</i> that is cognized and allegedly it must be added to ontology as a being (whereas, to Nietzsche, only the world as ever changing appearances can be assumed).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter <i>(see above)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Objective_idealism">Objective idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Objective idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective idealism</a></div>
<p>Objective idealism asserts that the reality of experiencing combines and transcends the realities of the object experienced and of the mind of the observer.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> Proponents include <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hill_Green" title="Thomas Hill Green">Thomas Hill Green</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Benedetto Croce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Absolute_idealism">Absolute idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Absolute idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></div>
<p>Schelling (1775–1854) claimed that the Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa. So there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real. This is Schelling's "absolute <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a>": the <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a> or mental images in the mind are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind.</p>
<p>Absolute idealism is G. W. F. Hegel's account of how existence is comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole. Hegel called his philosophy "absolute" idealism in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> which were not based on a critique of the finite and a dialectical philosophy of history as Hegel's idealism was. The exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, the phenomenological constitution of self-determination, the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History.</p>
<p>In his <i>Science of Logic</i> (1812–1814) Hegel argues that finite qualities are not fully "real" because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative <i>infinity</i>, on the other hand, would be more self-determining and hence more fully real. Similarly finite natural things are less "real"—because they are less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or natural objects are fully real is mistaken.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup></p>
<p>Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> For Hegel there must be some identity of thought and being for the "subject" (any human observer)) to be able to know any observed "object" (any external entity, possibly even another human) at all. Under Hegel's concept of "subject-object identity," subject and object both have Spirit (Hegel's ersatz, redefined, nonsupernatural "God") as their <i>conceptual</i> (not metaphysical) inner reality—and in that sense are identical. But until Spirit's "self-realization" occurs and Spirit graduates from Spirit to <i>Absolute</i> Spirit status, subject (a human mind) mistakenly thinks every "object" it observes is something "alien," meaning something separate or apart from "subject." In Hegel's words, "The object is revealed to it [to "subject"] by [as] something alien, and it does not recognize itself."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Self-realization occurs when Hegel (part of Spirit's nonsupernatural Mind, which is the collective mind of all humans) arrives on the scene and realizes that every "object" is <i>himself</i>, because both subject and object are essentially Spirit. When self-realization occurs and Spirit becomes <i>Absolute</i> Spirit, the "finite" (man, human) becomes the "infinite" ("God," divine), replacing the imaginary or "picture-thinking" supernatural God of theism: man becomes God.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Tucker puts it this way: "Hegelianism . . . is a religion of self-worship whose fundamental theme is given in Hegel's image of the man who aspires to be God himself, who demands 'something more, namely infinity.'" The picture Hegel presents is "a picture of a self-glorifying humanity striving compulsively, and at the end successfully, to rise to divinity."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a> criticised Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, particularly his claim to a comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. Where Hegel argues that an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world is an understanding of the logical structure of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>'s mind, Kierkegaard asserting that for God reality can be a system but it cannot be so for any human individual because both reality and humans are incomplete and all philosophical systems imply completeness. A <a href="/wiki/Logical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical system">logical system</a> is possible but an existential system is not. "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Hegel's absolute idealism blurs the distinction between existence and thought: our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality;</p>
<blockquote>
<p>So-called systems have often been characterized and challenged in the assertion that they abrogate the distinction between good and evil, and destroy freedom. Perhaps one would express oneself quite as definitely, if one said that every such system fantastically dissipates the concept existence. ... Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup></p>
<p>A major concern of Hegel's <i>Phenomenology of Spirit</i> (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his <i>Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</i> (1817–1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the <i>Philosophy of Right</i>, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.</p>
<p>In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding.</p>
<p>Bradley saw reality as a <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> whole apprehended through "feeling", a state in which there is no distinction between the perception and the thing perceived. Like Berkeley, Bradley thought that nothing can be known to exist unless it is known by a mind.</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>We perceive, on reflection, that to be real, or even barely to exist, must be to fall within sentience ... . Find any piece of existence, take up anything that any one could possibly call a fact, or could in any sense assert to have being, and then judge if it does not consist in sentient experience. Try to discover any sense in which you can still continue to speak of it, when all perception and feeling have been removed; or point out any fragment of its matter, any aspect of its being, which is not derived from and is not still relative to this source. When the experiment is made strictly, I can myself conceive of nothing else than the experienced.</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— F.H. Bradley, <i>Appearance and Reality</i>, Chapter 14</cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p>Bradley was the apparent target of <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>'s radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article <i>The Refutation of Idealism</i> is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism <i>esse est percipi</i>, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are <i>necessarily</i> connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that <i>esse</i> is held to be <i>percipi</i>, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Actual_idealism">Actual idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Actual idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Actual_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Actual Idealism">Actual Idealism</a> is a form of idealism developed by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Giovanni Gentile</a> that grew into a "grounded" idealism contrasting Kant and Hegel.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pluralistic_idealism">Pluralistic idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Pluralistic idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><b>Pluralistic idealism</b> such as that of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as <a href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">Panpsychism</a>, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a> established by <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">monads</a> and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a>. The English psychologist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(psychologist)" title="James Ward (psychologist)">James Ward</a> inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a> is the view that the minds that underlie reality are the minds of persons. <a href="/wiki/Borden_Parker_Bowne" title="Borden Parker Bowne">Borden Parker Bowne</a>, a philosopher at Boston University, a founder and popularizer of personal idealism, presented it as a substantive reality of persons, the only reality, as known directly in self-consciousness. Reality is a society of interacting persons dependent on the Supreme Person of God. Other proponents include <a href="/wiki/George_Holmes_Howison" title="George Holmes Howison">George Holmes Howison</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
<p>Howison's personal idealism <sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists <a href="/wiki/Borden_Parker_Bowne" title="Borden Parker Bowne">Borden Parker Bowne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_S._Brightman" title="Edgar S. Brightman">Edgar S. Brightman</a> and realistic personal theist <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Thomas Aquinas">Saint Thomas Aquinas</a> address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
<p>Howison, in his book <i>The Limits of Evolution and Other Essays Illustrating the Metaphysical Theory of Personal Idealism</i>, created a democratic notion of personal idealism that extended all the way to God, who was no more the ultimate monarch but the ultimate democrat in eternal relation to other eternal persons. J. M. E. McTaggart's idealist atheism and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Thomas Davidson (philosopher)">Thomas Davidson</a>'s Apeirionism resemble Howisons personal idealism.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a> of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge University</a>, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> and material objects are unreal. In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a></i> he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. <i>The Nature of Existence</i> (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his <i>Studies in Hegelian Cosmology</i> (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
<p>Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism"<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and <i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i>, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_movers" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmoved movers">unmoved movers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gerson_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerson-59">[59]</a></sup> Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grammar_of_Science" title="The Grammar of Science">The Grammar of Science</a></i>, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a> wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a> of the older physicists." This book influenced <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a>'s regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> than an external world."</p>
<p>Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>, a British astrophysicist of the early 20th century, wrote in his book <i>The Nature of the Physical World</i>; "The stuff of the world is mind-stuff";</p>
<p>"The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Ian_Barbour" title="Ian Barbour">Ian Barbour</a> in his book <i>Issues in Science and Religion</i> (1966), p.&#160;133, cites Arthur Eddington's <i>The Nature of the Physical World</i> (1928) for a text that argues The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principles provides a scientific basis for "the defense of the idea of human freedom" and his <i>Science and the Unseen World</i> (1929) for support of philosophical idealism "the thesis that reality is basically mental".</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Jeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir James Jeans">Sir James Jeans</a> wrote; "The stream of knowledge is heading towards a non-mechanical reality; the Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine. Mind no longer appears to be an accidental intruder into the realm of matter... we ought rather hail it as the creator and governor of the realm of matter."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup></p>
<p>Jeans, in an interview published in <a href="/wiki/The_Observer" title="The Observer">The Observer</a> (London), when asked the question: "Do you believe that life on this planet is the result of some sort of accident, or do you believe that it is a part of some great scheme?" replied:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"I incline to the idealistic theory that consciousness is fundamental, and that the material universe is derivative from consciousness, not consciousness from the material universe... In general the universe seems to me to be nearer to a great thought than to a great machine. It may well be, it seems to me, that each individual consciousness ought to be compared to a brain-cell in a universal mind.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Addressing the <a href="/wiki/British_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association">British Association</a> in 1934, Jeans said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"What remains is in any case very different from the full-blooded matter and the forbidding <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a> of the Victorian scientist. His objective and material universe is proved to consist of little more than constructs of our own minds. To this extent, then, modern physics has moved in the direction of philosophic idealism. Mind and matter, if not proved to be of similar nature, are at least found to be ingredients of one single system. There is no longer room for the kind of <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a> which has haunted philosophy since the days of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>." <sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In <i>The Universe Around Us</i>, Jeans writes:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"Finite picture whose dimensions are a certain amount of space and a certain amount of time; the protons and electrons are the streaks of paint which define the picture against its space-time background. Traveling as far back in time as we can, brings us not to the creation of the picture, but to its edge; the creation of the picture lies as much outside the picture as the artist is outside his canvas. On this view, discussing the creation of the universe in terms of time and space is like trying to discover the artist and the action of painting, by going to the edge of the canvas. This brings us very near to those philosophical systems which regard the universe as a thought in the mind of its Creator, thereby reducing all discussion of material creation to futility." <sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The chemist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Lester_Smith&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Lester Smith (page does not exist)">Ernest Lester Smith</a> wrote a book <i>Intelligence Came First</i> (1975) in which he claimed that consciousness is a fact of nature and that the cosmos is grounded in and pervaded by mind and intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Bernard_d%27Espagnat" title="Bernard d'Espagnat">Bernard d'Espagnat</a>, a French theoretical physicist best known for his work on the nature of reality, wrote a paper titled <i>The Quantum Theory and Reality.</i> According to the paper:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"The doctrine that the world is made up of objects whose existence is independent of human consciousness turns out to be in conflict with quantum mechanics and with facts established by experiment."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In an article in the Guardian titled <i>Quantum weirdness: What We Call 'Reality' is Just a State of Mind</i>, d'Espagnat wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"What quantum mechanics tells us, I believe, is surprising to say the least. It tells us that the basic components of objects – the particles, electrons, quarks etc. – cannot be thought of as "self-existent".</p>
</blockquote>
<p>He further writes that his research in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> has led him to conclude that an "ultimate reality" exists, which is not embedded in space or time.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind_over_matter" title="Mind over matter">Mind over matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Macionis, John J. (2012). <i>Sociology 14th Edition</i>. Boston: Pearson. p.&#160;88. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-11671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-11671-3">978-0-205-11671-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.aufirst=John+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Macionis&amp;rft.btitle=Sociology+14th+Edition&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-205-11671-3&amp;rft.pages=88&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pub=Pearson&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Brittanica-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brittanica_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brittanica_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Sommer Robinson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281802/idealism">"Idealism"</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Noir.C3.A9-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Noir.C3.A9_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noir.C3.A9_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ludwig Noiré, <i>Historical Introduction to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zim, Robert (1995). <i>Basic ideas of</i> Yog?c?ra <i>Buddhism.</i> San Francisco State University. Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Yogacara/basicideas.htm">[1]</a> (Retrieved 18 October 2007).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/view/Entry/90960?redirectedFrom=idealism#eid">"Shibboleth Authentication Request"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=Shibboleth+Authentication+Request&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu%2Fview%2FEntry%2F90960%3FredirectedFrom%3Didealism%23eid&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/idealism">"Idealism - Define Idealism at Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>Dictionary.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=Idealism+-+Define+Idealism+at+Dictionary.com&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fidealism&amp;rft.jtitle=Dictionary.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/idealism">"Idealism - Definition of Idealism by Merriam-Webster"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=Idealism+-+Definition+of+Idealism+by+Merriam-Webster&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fidealism&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <i><a href="/wiki/On_The_Freedom_of_the_Will" class="mw-redirect" title="On The Freedom of the Will">On The Freedom of the Will</a></i>, Schopenhauer noted the ambiguity of the word <i>idealism</i>, calling it a "term with multiple meanings". For Schopenhauer, idealists seek to account for the relationship between our ideas and external reality, rather than for the nature of reality as such. Non-Kantian idealists, on the other hand, theorized about mental aspects of the reality underlying phenomena.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip J. Neujahr would "restrict the idealist label to theories which hold that the world, or its material aspects, are dependent upon the specifically cognitive activities of the mind or Mind in perceiving or thinking about (or 'experiencing') the object of its awareness." Philip J. Neujahr, <i>Kant's Idealism</i>, Ch. 1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, Notes and Fragments, ed. Paul Guyer, trans. by Curtis Bowman, Paul Guyer, and Frederick Rauscher, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 318, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521552486" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-55248-6</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A 38</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanford_Leibniz-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Leibniz_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin, "Leibniz's Philosophy of Mind", <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-mind/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-mind/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gron-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gron_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">ARNE GRØN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/science-religion-encyclopedia/idealism">"Idealism"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Science and Religion</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=Idealism&amp;rft.au=ARNE+GR%C3%98N&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Fscience-religion-encyclopedia%2Fidealism&amp;rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Science+and+Religion&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Among the various Hindu philosophies, Kashmir Shaivism (Kaśmir Śaivism) is a school of Śaivism identical with trika Śaivism categorized by various scholars as monistic idealism" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.allsaivism.com/articles/KashmirSaivism.aspx">http://www.allsaivism.com/articles/KashmirSaivism.aspx</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648307/world-ground">"world ground (philosophy) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia"</a>. Britannica.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=world+ground+%28philosophy%29+-+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F648307%2Fworld-ground&amp;rft.pub=Britannica.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Charles Harris, <i>The Continuity of Madhyamaka and Yogacara in Indian Mahayana Buddhism.</i> E.J. Brill, 1991, page 133.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Lusthaus" title="Dan Lusthaus">Dan Lusthaus</a>, "What is and isn't Yog?c?ra." <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.acmuller.net/yogacara/articles/intro-uni.htm">[2]</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">J.D.McNair. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe6pages/Plato%27s%20Idealism.htm">"Plato's Idealism"</a>. <i>Students' notes</i>. MIAMI-DADE COMMUNITY COLLEGE<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=Plato%27s+Idealism&amp;rft.au=J.D.McNair&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.mdc.edu%2Fjmcnair%2FJoe6pages%2FPlato%2527s%2520Idealism.htm&amp;rft.jtitle=Students%27+notes&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Arne Grøn<code>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/science-religion-encyclopedia/idealism">"Idealism"</a>.</code> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/science-religion-encyclopedia">Encyclopedia of Science and Religion</a></i><code>. eNotes<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2011</span>.</code><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=Idealism&amp;rft.au=%3C%2Fcode%3EArne+Gr%C3%B8n%3Ccode%3E&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Fscience-religion-encyclopedia%2Fidealism&amp;rft.jtitle=%3C%2Fcode%3E+%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Fscience-religion-encyclopedia+Encyclopedia+of+Science+and+Religion%5D%3Ccode%3E&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">External link in <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|work=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#param_has_ext_link" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></cite></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Simone Klein. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophos.com/knowledge_base/archives_12/philosophy_questions_12.html">"What is objective idealism?"</a>. <i>Philosophy Questions</i>. Philosophos<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+objective+idealism%3F&amp;rft.au=Simone+Klein&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophos.com%2Fknowledge_base%2Farchives_12%2Fphilosophy_questions_12.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Questions&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'For there is for this universe no other place than the soul or mind'<br />
<i>(neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima)</i><br />
<i>Enneads</i>, iii, lib. vii, c.10</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>(oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere)</i><br />
Arthur Schopenhauer, <i><a href="/wiki/Parerga_and_Paralipomena" title="Parerga and Paralipomena">Parerga and Paralipomena</a></i>, Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 7</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Enneads</i>, iii, 7, 10</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" Berkeley's version of Idealism is usually referred to as Subjective Idealism or Dogmatic Idealism" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_idealism.html">http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_idealism.html</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clavis Universalis, or A New Inquiry after Truth, being a Demonstration of the NonExistence or Impossibility of an External World By Arthur Collier</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/worst.html">"Stove's discovery of the worst argument in the world"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=Stove%27s+discovery+of+the+worst+argument+in+the+world&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.maths.unsw.edu.au%2F~jim%2Fworst.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan Musgrave, in an article titled <i>Realism and Antirealism</i> in R. Klee (ed), <i>Scientific Inquiry: Readings in the Philosophy of Science</i>, Oxford, 1998, 344-352 - later re-titled to <i>Conceptual Idealism and Stove's GEM</i> in A. Musgrave, Essays on Realism and Rationalism, Rodopi, 1999 also in M.L. Dalla Chiara et al. (eds), <i>Language, Quantum, Music</i>, Kluwer, 1999, 25-35 - <a href="/wiki/Alan_Musgrave" title="Alan Musgrave">Alan Musgrave</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sense Without Matter Or Direct Perception By A.A. Luce</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Review for John Fosters book A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=15785">http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=15785</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/images/uploaded/file/Paul%20Brunton.pdf">http://www.stillnessspeaks.com/images/uploaded/file/Paul%20Brunton.pdf</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, <i>The Construction of Social Reality</i> p. 172</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, <i>The Construction of Social Reality</i> p. 174</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, A 140</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedrich Nietzsche, <i>Beyond Good and Evil</i>, Part 1 On the Prejudice of Philosophers Section 11; cf. <i>On the Genealogy of Morals</i>, book III, 25, the last paragraph.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. e.g. <i>The Will To Power</i>, 552. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheWillToPower-Nietzsche/will_to_power-nietzsche_djvu.txt">Online text here</a>. "At last, the «thing-in-itself» also disappears, because this is fundamentally the conception of a «subject-in-itself». But we have grasped that the subject is a fiction. The antithesis «thing-in-itself» and «appearance» is untenable; with that, however, the concept «appearance» also disappears."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. e.g. <i>The Will To Power</i>, 477. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheWillToPower-Nietzsche/will_to_power-nietzsche_djvu.txt">Online text here</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dictionary definition <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/objective+idealism">http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/objective+idealism</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_idealism.html">"Idealism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=Idealism+-+By+Branch+%2F+Doctrine+-+The+Basics+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophybasics.com%2Fbranch_idealism.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One book devoted to showing that Hegel is neither a Berkeleyan nor a Kantian idealist is Kenneth Westphal, <i>Hegel's Epistemological Realism</i> (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1989).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An interpretation of Hegel's critique of the finite, and of the "absolute idealism" which Hegel appears to base that critique, is found in Robert M. Wallace, Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Wallace, <i>Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God</i>, chapter 3, for details on how Hegel might preserve something resembling Kant's dualism of nature and freedom while defending it against skeptical attack.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. W. F. Hegel, <i>Phenomenology of Spirit</i>, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), para. 771; cf. para. 374.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonard F. Wheat, <i>Hegel's Undiscovered Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis Dialectics: What Only Marx and Tillich Understood</i> (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2012), 69, 105-106, 116, 158-59, 160, 291, 338.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Tucker, <i>Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), 43, 66.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Søren Kierkegaard, <i>Elements of the Philosophy of Right</i> (1821)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Søren Kierkegaard, <i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript">Concluding Unscientific Postscript</a></i> (1846)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Pluralistic Idealism, Version 1: Monadism <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.eskimo.com/~msharlow/idealism.htm">http://www.eskimo.com/~msharlow/idealism.htm</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Idealistic Theory No. 3: Pluralistic Idealism <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.eskimo.com/~msharlow/idealism.htm">http://www.eskimo.com/~msharlow/idealism.htm</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New Cambridge Modern History: The era of violence, 1898-1945, edited by David Thomson</i> University Press, 1960, p. 135</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Joseph Tallon The concept of self in British and American idealism 1939, p. 118</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Limits Of Evolution; And Other Essays Illustrating The Metaphysical Theory Of Personal Idealism By George Holmes Howison</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the book Idealistic Argument in Recent British and American Philosophy By Gustavus W Cunningham page 202 "Ontologically i am an idealist, since i believe that all that exists is spiritual. I am also, in one sense of the term, a Personal Idealist."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.howison.us/george_holmes_howison.htm">"George Holmes Howison"</a>. Howison.us<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=George+Holmes+Howison&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.howison.us%2Fgeorge_holmes_howison.htm&amp;rft.pub=Howison.us&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bookrags.com/research/howison-george-holmes-18341916-eoph/">"Research &amp; Articles on Howison, George Holmes (1834–1916) by"</a>. BookRags.com. 2010-11-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.btitle=Research+%26+Articles+on+Howison%2C+George+Holmes+%281834%931916%29+by&amp;rft.date=2010-11-02&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bookrags.com%2Fresearch%2Fhowison-george-holmes-18341916-eoph%2F&amp;rft.pub=BookRags.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_speculative_philosophy/v020/20.3mclachlan.html">http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_speculative_philosophy/v020/20.3mclachlan.html</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, vol. 3, "Idealism," New York, 1967</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Studies in Hegelian Cosmology</i> ibid.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles M. Bakewell, "Thomas Davidson," Dictionary of American Biography, gen. ed. Dumas Malone (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932), 96.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gerson-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gerson_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Gerson, Lloyd P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://individual.utoronto.ca/lpgerson/The_Unity_Of_Intellect_In_Aristotles_De_Anima.pdf"><i>The Unity of Intellect in Aristotle's "De Anima"</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Phronesis</i> <b>49</b>. pp.&#160;348–373. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4182761">4182761</a>. <q>Desperately difficult texts inevitably elicit desperate hermeneutical measures. Aristotle's <i>De Anima,</i> book three, chapter five, is evidently one such text. At least since the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a>, scholars have felt compelled to draw some remarkable conclusions regarding Aristotle's brief remarks in this passage regarding intellect. One such claim is that in chapter five, Aristotle introduces a second intellect, the so-called 'agent intellect', an intellect distinct from the 'passive intellect', the supposed focus of discussion up until this passage. This view is a direct descendent of the view of Alexander himself, who identified the agent intellect with the divine intellect. Even the staunchest defender of such a view is typically at a loss to give a plausible explanation of why the divine intellect pops into and then out of the picture in the intense and closely argued discussion of the human intellect that goes from chapter four through to the end of chapter seven.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.aufirst=Lloyd+P.&amp;rft.aulast=Gerson&amp;rft.btitle=The+Unity+of+Intellect+in+Aristotle%27s+%22De+Anima%22&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4182761&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findividual.utoronto.ca%2Flpgerson%2FThe_Unity_Of_Intellect_In_Aristotles_De_Anima.pdf&amp;rft.pages=348-373&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davidson, Journal, 1884-1898 (Thomas Davidson Collection, Manuscript Group #169, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University). Quoted in DeArmey, "Thomas Davidson's Apeirotheism," 692</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.S. Eddington, <i>The Nature of the Physical World</i>, page 276-81.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir James Jeans, <i>The mysterious universe</i>, page 137.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir James Jeans addressing the <a href="/wiki/British_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association">British Association</a> in 1934.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir James Jeans <i>The Universe Around Us</i> page 317.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest Lester Smith<i>Intelligence Came First</i> Quest Books, 1990 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0835606570" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8356-0657-0</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Quantum Theory and Reality <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/pdf/197911_0158.pdf">http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/pdf/197911_0158.pdf</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">d'Espagnat, Bernard (20 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/blog/2009/mar/17/templeton-quantum-entanglement">"Quantum weirdness: What We Call 'Reality' is Just a State of Mind"</a>. <i>Guardian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=Quantum+weirdness%3A+What+We+Call+%27Reality%27+is+Just+a+State+of+Mind&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft.aulast=d%27Espagnat&amp;rft.date=2009-03-20&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fscience%2Fblog%2F2009%2Fmar%2F17%2Ftempleton-quantum-entanglement&amp;rft.jtitle=Guardian&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i>Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason with an historical introduction by Ludwig Noiré</i>, available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.books.google.com/">[3]</a></li>
<li>Kierkegaard, Søren. <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>, Princeton, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691020815" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-691-02081-5</a></li>
<li>Neujahr, Philip J., <i>Kant's Idealism</i>, Mercer University Press, 1995 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/086554476X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-86554-476-X</a></li>
<li>Watts, Michael. <i>Kierkegaard</i>, Oneworld, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851683178" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-85168-317-8</a></li>
</ul>
<p><b>Further reading</b></p>
<ul>
<li>Gustavus Watts Cunningham <i>Idealistic Argument in Recent British and American Philosophy</i> Books For Libraries Press, 1967</li>
<li>Hugh Joseph Tallon <i>The concept of self in British and American idealism</i> Catholic University of America Press, 1939</li>
<li>Gerald Thomas Baskfield <i>The idea of God in British and American personal idealism</i> Catholic University of America, 1933</li>
<li>Vergilius Ture Anselm Ferm <i>A history of philosophical systems</i> Littlefield Adams, 1968 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0822601303" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8226-0130-3</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idealism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:idealism">idealism</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/idealism">Idealism</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/idea/267">Idealism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/germidea/">"German idealism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIdealism&amp;rft.atitle=German+idealism&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fgermidea%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acgrayling.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=76:wittgenstein-on-scepticism-and-certainty&amp;catid=28:wittgenstein">A.C. Grayling-Wittgenstein on Scepticism and Certainty</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spirituality.com/dt/toc_sh.jhtml">Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy</a>: idealism in religious thought</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shvetsandrey.narod.ru/idealizme.pdf">Idealism and its practical use in physics and psychology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&amp;EventId=678">'The Triumph of Idealism'</a>, lecture by Professor <a href="/wiki/Keith_Ward" title="Keith Ward">Keith Ward</a> offering a positive view of Idealism, at <a href="/wiki/Gresham_College" title="Gresham College">Gresham College</a>, 13 March 2008 (available in text, audio, and video download)</li>
</ul>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Idealism" title="Template:Idealism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Idealism" title="Template talk:Idealism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Idealism&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><strong class="selflink">Idealism</strong></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Forms</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Actual_idealism" title="Actual idealism">Actual idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monistic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Monistic idealism">Monistic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" title="Hindu idealism">Indian idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Monistic idealism (Shaivism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Magical (thaumaturgic) idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist Idealism (consciousness-only)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Practical Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political idealism">Political idealism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Plato's Theory of Ideas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness-only" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness-only">consciousness-only</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(philosophy)" title="Mentalism (philosophy)">mentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">panpsychism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealistic_pluralism" title="Idealistic pluralism">idealistic pluralism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealistic_Studies" title="Idealistic Studies">Idealistic Studies</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Metaphysics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Metaphysicians</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Idealism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics" title="Category:Metaphysics">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Metaphysics" title="Portal:Metaphysics">Portal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_topics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Idealism</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Idealism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_mind&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain" title="Alexander Bain">Bain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Chandra_Bhattacharya" title="Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya">Bhattacharya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Block</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Broad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Burge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">Chalmers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Churchland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">McDowell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Minsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Turing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Idealism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_Parallelism" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychophysical Parallelism">Parallelism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">identity theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representational_theory_of_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Representational theory of mind">Representational</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept_and_object" title="Concept and object">Concept and object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ingenuity" title="Ingenuity">Ingenuity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">Intuition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_process" title="Mental process">Mental process</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_property" title="Mental property">Mental property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_mind_articles" title="Index of philosophy of mind articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mind_and_brain" title="Portal:Mind and brain">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564913">00564913</a></span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>


<!-- 
NewPP limit report
Parsed by mw1271
Cached time: 20160706121020
Cache expiry: 2592000
Dynamic content: false
CPU time usage: 0.432 seconds
Real time usage: 0.576 seconds
Preprocessor visited node count: 3724/1000000
Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000
Post?expand include size: 250049/2097152 bytes
Template argument size: 24882/2097152 bytes
Highest expansion depth: 16/40
Expensive parser function count: 4/500
Lua time usage: 0.145/10.000 seconds
Lua memory usage: 4.61 MB/50 MB
Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1-->

<!-- 
Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)
100.00%  426.302      1 - -total
 24.37%  103.879      1 - Template:Reflist
 14.43%   61.519     11 - Template:Navbox
 14.11%   60.157      2 - Template:Citation_needed
 13.16%   56.112      1 - Template:Philosophy_topics
 12.41%   52.908      2 - Template:Fix
 12.39%   52.813      1 - Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups
  9.57%   40.790      5 - Template:Category_handler
  8.08%   34.448      2 - Template:Cite_book
  7.71%   32.862     12 - Template:Cite_web
-->

<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:15428-0!*!0!!en!4!* and timestamp 20160706121020 and revision id 728603870
 -->
<noscript><img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" /></noscript></div>					<div class="printfooter">
						Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;oldid=728603870">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;oldid=728603870</a>"					</div>
				<div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Idealism" title="Category:Idealism">Idealism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Monism" title="Category:Monism">Monism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ontology" title="Category:Ontology">Ontology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Western_philosophy" title="Category:Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_external_links" title="Category:CS1 errors: external links">CS1 errors: external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_incorrectly_using_the_quote_template" title="Category:Pages incorrectly using the quote template">Pages incorrectly using the quote template</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2012" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2012">Use dmy dates from July 2012</a></li></ul></div></div>				<div class="visualClear"></div>
							</div>
		</div>
		<div id="mw-navigation">
			<h2>Navigation menu</h2>

			<div id="mw-head">
									<div id="p-personal" role="navigation" class="" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label">
						<h3 id="p-personal-label">Personal tools</h3>
						<ul>
							<li id="pt-anonuserpage">Not logged in</li><li id="pt-anontalk"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li><li id="pt-anoncontribs"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Idealism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory">Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Idealism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o">Log in</a></li>						</ul>
					</div>
									<div id="left-navigation">
										<div id="p-namespaces" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-namespaces-label">
						<h3 id="p-namespaces-label">Namespaces</h3>
						<ul>
															<li  id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Idealism"  title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></span></li>
															<li  id="ca-talk"><span><a href="/wiki/Talk:Idealism"  title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t" rel="discussion">Talk</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-variants" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-variants-label">
												<h3 id="p-variants-label">
							<span>Variants</span><a href="#"></a>
						</h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
									</div>
				<div id="right-navigation">
										<div id="p-views" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-views-label">
						<h3 id="p-views-label">Views</h3>
						<ul>
															<li id="ca-view" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Idealism" >Read</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-edit"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=edit"  title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-history" class="collapsible"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=history"  title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-cactions" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-cactions-label">
						<h3 id="p-cactions-label"><span>More</span><a href="#"></a></h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
										<div id="p-search" role="search">
						<h3>
							<label for="searchInput">Search</label>
						</h3>

						<form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform">
							<div id="simpleSearch">
							<input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"/><input type="hidden" value="Special:Search" name="title"/><input type="submit" name="fulltext" value="Search" title="Search Wikipedia for this text" id="mw-searchButton" class="searchButton mw-fallbackSearchButton"/><input type="submit" name="go" value="Go" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists" id="searchButton" class="searchButton"/>							</div>
						</form>
					</div>
									</div>
			</div>
			<div id="mw-panel">
				<div id="p-logo" role="banner"><a class="mw-wiki-logo" href="/wiki/Main_Page"  title="Visit the main page"></a></div>
						<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-navigation' aria-labelledby='p-navigation-label'>
			<h3 id='p-navigation-label'>Navigation</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-mainpage-description"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-featuredcontent"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Featured_content" title="Featured content – the best of Wikipedia">Featured content</a></li><li id="n-currentevents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Find background information on current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Load a random article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-sitesupport"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en" title="Support us">Donate to Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-shoplink"><a href="//shop.wikimedia.org" title="Visit the Wikipedia store">Wikipedia store</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-interaction' aria-labelledby='p-interaction-label'>
			<h3 id='p-interaction-label'>Interaction</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-help"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Find out about Wikipedia">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-portal"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="About the project, what you can do, where to find things">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes in the wiki [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-contactpage"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-tb' aria-labelledby='p-tb-label'>
			<h3 id='p-tb-label'>Tools</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Idealism" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Idealism" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;oldid=728603870" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-wikibase"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33442" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li><li id="t-cite"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Idealism&amp;id=728603870" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-coll-print_export' aria-labelledby='p-coll-print_export-label'>
			<h3 id='p-coll-print_export-label'>Print/export</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=book_creator&amp;referer=Idealism">Create a book</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rdf2latex"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=render_article&amp;arttitle=Idealism&amp;returnto=Idealism&amp;oldid=728603870&amp;writer=rdf2latex">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-wikibase-otherprojects' aria-labelledby='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>
			<h3 id='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>In other projects</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Idealism" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-lang' aria-labelledby='p-lang-label'>
			<h3 id='p-lang-label'>Languages</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismus" title="Idealismus – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مثالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0dealizm" title="İdealizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koan-li%C4%81m-l%C5%ABn" title="Koan-li?m-lūn – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Ід?алізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Ід?алізм – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Идеализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizam" title="Idealizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismus" title="Idealismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismus" title="Idealismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ιδεαλισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideismo" title="Ideismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="ایدئالیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id%C3%A9alisme_(philosophie)" title="Idéalisme (philosophie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="唯心主義 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%80%EB%85%90%EB%A1%A0" title="관?론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Իդեալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="आदर?शवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizam" title="Idealizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hughyggja" title="Hughyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%93%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="?יד?ליז? – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%90%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82" title="?ಡಿಯಲಿಸಂ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="იდე?ლიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Идеализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meng%C3%AEwer%C3%AE" title="Mengîwerî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="//lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A1" title="ຈິຕະນິ?ົມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismus" title="Idealismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ide%C4%81lisms" title="Ide?lisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizmas" title="Idealizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizmus" title="Idealizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Идеализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="ആശയവാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="आदर?शवाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%B3%E5%BF%B5%E8%AB%96" title="観念論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealisme" title="Idealisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizm" title="Idealizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਆਦਰਸ਼ਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aidiilizim" title="Aidiilizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizm_(filozofia)" title="Idealizm (filozofia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Идеализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizmus" title="Idealizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizem" title="Idealizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Идеализам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealizam" title="Idealizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismi" title="Idealismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0dealizm" title="İdealizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Ідеалізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_duy_t%C3%A2m" title="Chủ nghĩa duy tâm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismo" title="Idealismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E8%AB%96" title="唯心論 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="唯心主義 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
				<div class='after-portlet after-portlet-lang'><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33442#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div>			</div>
		</div>
				</div>
		</div>
		<div id="footer" role="contentinfo">
							<ul id="footer-info">
											<li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 6 July 2016, at 12:10.</li>
											<li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" style="display:none;"></a>;
additional terms may apply.  By using this site, you agree to the <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="//www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li>
									</ul>
							<ul id="footer-places">
											<li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="wmf:Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" title="Wikipedia:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute">Developers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idealism&amp;mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li>
									</ul>
										<ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint">
											<li id="footer-copyrightico">
							<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="/static/images/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="/static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation"/></a>						</li>
											<li id="footer-poweredbyico">
							<a href="//www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31"/></a>						</li>
									</ul>
						<div style="clear:both"></div>
		</div>
		<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.state({"ext.globalCssJs.site":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready"});mw.loader.load(["ext.cite.a11y","mediawiki.toc","mediawiki.action.view.postEdit","site","mediawiki.user","mediawiki.hidpi","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.searchSuggest","ext.eventLogging.subscriber","ext.gadget.teahouse","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.DRN-wizard","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.featured-articles-links","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","schema.UniversalLanguageSelector","ext.uls.eventlogger","ext.uls.interlanguage"]);});</script><script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":76,"wgHostname":"mw1250"});});</script>
	</body>
</html>
