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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Existentialism</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">"Existential" redirects here. For the logical sense of the term, see <a href="/wiki/Existential_quantification" title="Existential quantification">Existential quantification</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Existence_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Existence (disambiguation)">Existence (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a>.</div>
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From left to right, top to bottom: <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoyevsky">Dostoyevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></div>
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<p><b>Existentialism</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɛ/ short 'e' in 'bed'">ɛ</span><span title="'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'z' in 'Zion'">z</span><span title="/ɪ/ short 'i' in 'bid'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɛ/ short 'e' in 'bed'">ɛ</span><span title="'n' in 'no'">n</span><span title="/ʃ/ 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ə/ 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/ short 'i' in 'bid'">ɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'Zion'">z</span><span title="/əm/ 'm' in 'rhythm'">əm</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> is a term applied to the work of certain late-19th- and 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,<sup id="cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell-SEoP-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Philosophy_1995_p._259_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philosophy_1995_p._259-4">[4]</a></sup> shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> In the view of the existentialist, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or <a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">absurd</a> world.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_C._Solomon_1974.2C_pp._1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_C._Solomon_1974.2C_pp._1-7">[7]</a></sup> Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher,<sup id="cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell-SEoP-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McDonald2009Stanford_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDonald2009Stanford-11">[11]</a></sup> though he did not use the term existentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> He proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">meaning</a> to life and living it <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">passionately and sincerely, or "authentically."</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Existentialism became popular in the years following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definitional_issues_and_background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definitional issues and background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Concepts"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Concepts</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Existence_precedes_essence"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Existence precedes essence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#The_Absurd"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">The Absurd</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Facticity"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Facticity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Authenticity"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Authenticity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#The_Other_and_the_Look"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">The Other and the Look</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Angst_and_dread"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Angst and dread</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Despair"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Despair</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Opposition_to_positivism_and_rationalism"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Opposition to positivism and rationalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Existentialism_and_religion"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Existentialism and religion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Existentialism_and_nihilism"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Existentialism and nihilism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Kierkegaard_and_Nietzsche"><span class="tocnumber">7.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kierkegaard and Nietzsche</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Dostoyevsky"><span class="tocnumber">7.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Dostoyevsky</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Early_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Early 20th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#After_the_Second_World_War"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">After the Second World War</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Influence_outside_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Influence outside philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Art"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Art</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Film_and_television"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Film and television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Literature"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Literature</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Theatre"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Theatre</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Psychoanalysis_and_psychotherapy"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Criticisms"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Criticisms</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#General_criticisms"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">General criticisms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Sartre.27s_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sartre's philosophy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Specific"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Specific</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">11.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">11.3</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Journals_and_articles"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Journals and articles</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitional_issues_and_background">Definitional issues and background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Definitional issues and background">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There has never been general agreement on the definition of existentialism. The term is often seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight, long after they had died. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, the first prominent existentialist philosopher to adopt the term as a self-description was <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. Sartre posits the idea that "what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence", as scholar <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a> explains.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> According to philosopher <a href="/wiki/Steven_Crowell" title="Steven Crowell">Steven Crowell</a>, defining existentialism has been relatively difficult, and he argues that it is better <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understood</a> as a general approach used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than as a systematic philosophy itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell-SEoP-2">[2]</a></sup> Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as "the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>
<p>Although many outside <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> consider the term existentialism to have originated from Kierkegaard himself, it is more likely that Kierkegaard adopted this term (or at least the term "existential" as a description of his philosophy) from the Norwegian poet and literary critic <a href="/wiki/Johan_Sebastian_Cammermeyer_Welhaven" class="mw-redirect" title="Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven">Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> This assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern. Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. It is in the first conversation that it is believed that Welhaven came up with "a word that he said covered a certain thinking, which had a close and positive attitude to life, a relationship he described as existential".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern.</p>
<p>The second claim comes from the Norwegian historian <a href="/wiki/Rune_Slagstad" title="Rune Slagstad">Rune Slagstad</a>, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term "existential" was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that "<a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelians</a> do not study philosophy 'existentially'; to use a phrase by Welhaven from one time when I spoke with him about philosophy".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> On the other hand, the Norwegian historian <a href="/wiki/Anne-Lise_Seip" title="Anne-Lise Seip">Anne-Lise Seip</a> is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian <a href="/wiki/Cathrinus_Bang" title="Cathrinus Bang">Cathrinus Bang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Concepts">Concepts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Concepts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Existence_precedes_essence">Existence precedes essence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Existence precedes essence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></div>
<p>A central proposition of Existentialism is that <i>existence precedes <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a></i>, which means that the most important consideration for individuals is that they are individuals—independently acting and responsible, conscious beings ("existence")—rather than what labels, roles, stereotypes, definitions, or other preconceived categories the individuals fit ("essence"). The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their "true essence" instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them. Thus, human beings, through their own <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Although it was Sartre who explicitly coined the phrase, similar notions can be found in the thought of existentialist philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>"The subjective <i>thinker’s form</i>, the form of his communication, is his <i>style</i>. His form must be just as manifold as are the opposites that he holds together. The systematic <i>eins, zwei, drei</i> is an abstract form that also must inevitably run into trouble whenever it is to be applied to the concrete. To the same degree as the subjective thinker is concrete, to the same degree his form must also be concretely dialectical. But just as he himself is not a poet, not an ethicist, not a dialectician, so also his form is none of these directly. His form must first and last be related to existence, and in this regard he must have at his disposal the poetic, the ethical, the dialectical, the religious. Subordinate character, setting, etc., which belong to the well balanced character of the esthetic production, are in themselves breadth; the subjective thinker has only one setting—existence—and has nothing to do with localities and such things. The setting is not the fairyland of the imagination, where poetry produces consummation, nor is the setting laid in England, and historical accuracy is not a concern. The setting is inwardness in existing as a human being; the concretion is the relation of the existence-categories to one another. Historical accuracy and historical actuality are breadth." Søren Kierkegaard (Concluding Postscript, Hong p. 357–358)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Some interpret the imperative to define oneself as meaning that anyone can wish to be anything. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence. Instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are (1) defined only insofar as they act and (2) that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, defined as a cruel person. Furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity (cruel persons). This is as opposed to their genes, or <i>human nature</i>, bearing the blame.</p>
<p>As Sartre writes in his work <i><a href="/wiki/Existentialism_is_a_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialism is a Humanism">Existentialism is a Humanism</a></i>: "... man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards." Of course, the more positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied: A person can choose to act in a different way, and to be a good person instead of a cruel person. Here it is also clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact, neither of these things essentially.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_Absurd">The Absurd</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: The Absurd">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></div>
<p>The notion of the <a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurd</a> contains the idea that there is no meaning in the world beyond what meaning we give it. This meaninglessness also encompasses the amorality or "unfairness" of the world. This contrasts with the notion that "bad things don't happen to good people"; to the world, metaphorically speaking, there is no such thing as a good person or a bad person; what happens happens, and it may just as well happen to a "good" person as to a "bad" person.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
<p>Because of the world's absurdity, at any point in time, anything can happen to anyone, and a tragic event could plummet someone into direct confrontation with the Absurd. The notion of the Absurd has been prominent in literature throughout history. Many of the literary works of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoyevsky">Fyodor Dostoyevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-luigitheatre_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luigitheatre-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-understandex_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-understandex-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-crisisconsciousness_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crisisconsciousness-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-masks_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-masks-28">[28]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Heller" title="Joseph Heller">Joseph Heller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a> contain descriptions of people who encounter the absurdity of the world.</p>
<p>It is in relation to the concept of the devastating awareness of meaninglessness that Albert Camus claimed that "there is only one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide" in his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphus" title="The Myth of Sisyphus">The Myth of Sisyphus</a></i>. Although "prescriptions" against the possibly deleterious consequences of these kinds of encounters vary, from Kierkegaard's religious "stage" to Camus' insistence on persevering in spite of absurdity, the concern with helping people avoid living their lives in ways that put them in the perpetual danger of having everything meaningful break down is common to most existentialist philosophers. The possibility of having everything meaningful break down poses a threat of <a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">quietism</a>, which is inherently against the existentialist philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> It has been said that the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> makes all humans existentialists.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Facticity">Facticity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Facticity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></div>
<p>Facticity is a concept defined by Sartre in <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> as the <i><a href="/wiki/Being-in-itself" class="mw-redirect" title="Being-in-itself">in-itself</a></i>, which delineates for humans the modalities of being and not being. This can be more easily understood when considering facticity in relation to the temporal dimension of our past: one's past is what one is, in the sense that it co-constitutes oneself. However, to say that one is only one's past would be to ignore a significant part of reality (the present and the future), while saying that one's past is only what one was, would entirely detach it from oneself now. A denial of one's own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same goes for all other kinds of facticity (having a human body — e.g. one that doesn't allow a person to run faster than the speed of sound —identity, values, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></p>
<p>Facticity is both a limitation and a condition of freedom. It is a limitation in that a large part of one's facticity consists of things one couldn't have chosen (birthplace, etc.), but a condition of freedom in the sense that one's values most likely depend on it. However, even though one's facticity is "set in stone" (as being past, for instance), it cannot determine a person: The value ascribed to one's facticity is still ascribed to it freely by that person. As an example, consider two men, one of whom has no memory of his past and the other who remembers everything. They both have committed many crimes, but the first man, knowing nothing about this, leads a rather normal life while the second man, feeling trapped by his own past, continues a life of crime, blaming his own past for "trapping" him in this life. There is nothing essential about his committing crimes, but he ascribes this meaning to his past.</p>
<p>However, to disregard one's facticity when, in the continual process of self-making, one projects oneself into the future, that would be to put oneself in denial of oneself, and thus would be inauthentic. In other words, the origin of one's projection must still be one's facticity, though in the mode of not being it (essentially). Another aspect of facticity is that it entails <a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">angst</a>, both in the sense that freedom "produces" angst when limited by facticity, and in the sense that the lack of the possibility of having facticity to "step in" for one to take responsibility for something one has done, also produces angst.</p>
<p>Another aspect of existential freedom is that one can change one's values. Thus, one is responsible for one's values, regardless of society's values. The focus on <a href="/wiki/Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom">freedom</a> in existentialism is related to the limits of the responsibility one bears, as a result of one's freedom: the relationship between freedom and responsibility is one of interdependency, and a clarification of freedom also clarifies that for which one is responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Authenticity">Authenticity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Authenticity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></div>
<p>Many noted existentialist writers consider the theme of authentic existence important. Authentic existence involves the idea that one has to "create oneself" and then live in accordance with this self. What is meant by <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a> is that in acting, one should act as oneself, not as "one" acts or as "one's genes" or any other essence requires. The authentic act is one that is in accordance with one's freedom. Of course, as a condition of freedom is facticity, this includes one's facticity, but not to the degree that this facticity can in any way determine one's choices (in the sense that one could then blame one's background for making the choice one made). The role of facticity in relation to authenticity involves letting one's actual values come into play when one makes a choice (instead of, like Kierkegaard's Aesthete, "choosing" randomly), so that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either-or without allowing the options to have different values.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
<p>In contrast to this, the inauthentic is the denial to live in accordance with one's freedom. This can take many forms, from pretending choices are meaningless or random, through convincing oneself that some form of <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a> is true, to a sort of "mimicry" where one acts as "one should." How "one" should act is often determined by an image one has of how one such as oneself (say, a bank manager, lion tamer, prostitute, etc.) acts. This image usually corresponds to some sort of social norm, but this does not mean that all acting in accordance with social norms is inauthentic: The main point is the attitude one takes to one's own freedom and responsibility, and the extent to which one acts in accordance with this freedom.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_Other_and_the_Look">The Other and the Look</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: The Other and the Look">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Other" title="Other">Other</a></div>
<p>The Other (when written with a capital "O") is a concept more properly belonging to <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> and its account of <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a>. However, the concept has seen widespread use in existentialist writings, and the conclusions drawn from it differ slightly from the phenomenological accounts. The experience of the Other is the experience of another free subject who inhabits the same world as a person does. In its most basic form, it is this experience of the Other that constitutes intersubjectivity and objectivity. To clarify, when one experiences someone else, and this Other person experiences the world (the same world that a person experiences)—only from "over there"—the world itself is constituted as objective in that it is something that is "there" as identical for both of the subjects; a person experiences the other person as experiencing the same things. This experience of the Other's look is what is termed the Look (sometimes <a href="/wiki/The_Gaze" class="mw-redirect" title="The Gaze">the Gaze</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup></p>
<p>While this experience, in its basic phenomenological sense, constitutes the world as objective, and oneself as objectively existing subjectivity (one experiences oneself as seen in the Other's Look in precisely the same way that one experiences the Other as seen by him, as subjectivity), in existentialism, it also acts as a kind of limitation of freedom. This is because the Look tends to objectify what it sees. As such, when one experiences oneself in the Look, one doesn't experience oneself as nothing (no thing), but as something. Sartre's own example of a man peeping at someone through a keyhole can help clarify this: at first, this man is entirely caught up in the situation he is in; he is in a pre-reflexive state where his entire consciousness is directed at what goes on in the room. Suddenly, he hears a creaking floorboard behind him, and he becomes aware of himself as seen by the Other. He is thus filled with shame for he perceives himself as he would perceive someone else doing what he was doing, as a <a href="/wiki/Peeping_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="Peeping Tom">Peeping Tom</a>. The Look is then co-constitutive of one's facticity.</p>
<p>Another characteristic feature of the Look is that no Other really needs to have been there: It is quite possible that the creaking floorboard was nothing but the movement of an old house; the Look isn't some kind of mystical telepathic experience of the actual way the other sees one (there may also have been someone there, but he could have not noticed that the person was there). It is only one's perception of the way another might perceive him.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Angst_and_dread">Angst and dread</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Angst and dread">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Living_educational_theory" title="Living educational theory">Living educational theory</a></div>
<p>"Existential <a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">angst</a>", sometimes called dread, anxiety, or <a href="/wiki/Anguish" title="Anguish">anguish</a>, is a term that is common to many existentialist thinkers. It is generally held to be a negative feeling arising from the experience of human freedom and responsibility. The archetypal example is the experience one has when standing on a cliff where one not only fears falling off it, but also dreads the possibility of throwing oneself off. In this experience that "nothing is holding me back", one senses the lack of anything that predetermines one to either throw oneself off or to stand still, and one experiences one's own freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
<p>It can also be seen in relation to the previous point how angst is before nothing, and this is what sets it apart from fear that has an object. While in the case of fear, one can take definitive measures to remove the object of fear, in the case of angst, no such "constructive" measures are possible. The use of the word "nothing" in this context relates both to the inherent insecurity about the consequences of one's actions, and to the fact that, in experiencing freedom as angst, one also realizes that one is fully responsible for these consequences. There is nothing in people (genetically, for instance) that acts in their stead—that they can blame if something goes wrong. Therefore, not every choice is perceived as having dreadful possible consequences (and, it can be claimed, human lives would be unbearable if every choice facilitated dread). However, this doesn't change the fact that freedom remains a condition of every action.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Despair">Despair</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Despair">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard#Despair" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Despair</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></div>
<p>Despair, in existentialism, is generally defined as a loss of hope.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> More specifically, it is a loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of one's self or identity. If a person is invested in being a particular thing, such as a bus driver or an upstanding citizen, and then finds his being-thing compromised, he would normally be found in state of despair — a hopeless state. For example, a singer who loses the ability to sing may despair if she has nothing else to fall back on—nothing to rely on for her identity. She finds herself unable to be what defined her being.</p>
<p>What sets the existentialist notion of despair apart from the conventional definition is that existentialist despair is a state one is in even when he isn't overtly in despair. So long as a person's identity depends on qualities that can crumble, he is in perpetual despair—and as there is, in Sartrean terms, no human essence found in conventional reality on which to constitute the individual's sense of identity, despair is a universal human condition. As Kierkegaard defines it in <i><a href="/wiki/Either/Or" title="Either/Or">Either/Or</a></i>: "Let each one learn what he can; both of us can learn that a person’s unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions, since this would only make him completely unhappy."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Love" title="Works of Love">Works of Love</a></i>, he said:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>When the God-forsaken worldliness of earthly life shuts itself in complacency, the confined air develops poison, the moment gets stuck and stands still, the prospect is lost, a need is felt for a refreshing, enlivening breeze to cleanse the air and dispel the poisonous vapors lest we suffocate in worldliness. ... Lovingly to hope all things is the opposite of despairingly to hope <a href="/wiki/Nothing" title="Nothing">nothing</a> at all. Love hopes all things – yet is never put to shame. To relate oneself expectantly to the possibility of the good is to hope. To relate oneself expectantly to the possibility of evil is to fear. By the decision to choose hope one decides infinitely more than it seems, because it is an eternal decision. p. 246-250</p>
</blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Opposition_to_positivism_and_rationalism">Opposition to positivism and rationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Opposition to positivism and rationalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></div>
<p>Existentialists oppose definitions of human beings as primarily rational, and, therefore, oppose <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>. Existentialism asserts that people actually make decisions based on subjective meaning rather than pure rationality. The rejection of reason as the source of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought, as is the focus on the feelings of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">dread</a> that we feel in the face of our own radical <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">freedom</a> and our awareness of death. Kierkegaard advocated rationality as means to interact with the objective world (e.g. in the natural sciences), but when it comes to existential problems, reason is insufficient: "Human reason has boundaries".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<p>Like Kierkegaard, Sartre saw problems with rationality, calling it a form of "bad faith", an attempt by the self to impose structure on a world of phenomena—"the Other"—that is fundamentally irrational and random. According to Sartre, rationality and other forms of bad faith hinder people from finding meaning in freedom. To try to suppress their feelings of anxiety and dread, people confine themselves within everyday experience, Sartre asserts, thereby relinquishing their freedom and acquiescing to being possessed in one form or another by "the Look" of "the Other" (i.e., possessed by another person—or at least one's idea of that other person).</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Existentialism_and_religion">Existentialism and religion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Existentialism and religion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">Jewish existentialism</a></div>
<p>An existentialist reading of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> would demand that the reader recognize that he is an existing <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> studying the words more as a recollection of events. This is in contrast to looking at a collection of "truths" that are outside and unrelated to the reader, but may develop a sense of reality/God. Such a reader is not obligated to follow the commandments as if an external agent is forcing them upon him, but as though they are inside him and guiding him from inside. This is the task Kierkegaard takes up when he asks: "Who has the more difficult task: the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor's distance from everyday life-or the learner who should put it to use?"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Existentialism_and_nihilism">Existentialism and nihilism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Existentialism and nihilism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Existential_nihilism" title="Existential nihilism">Existential nihilism</a></div>
<p>Although <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a> and existentialism are distinct philosophies, they are often confused with one another. A primary cause of confusion is that <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> is an important philosopher in both fields, but also the existentialist insistence on the inherent meaninglessness of the world. Existentialist philosophers often stress the importance of <a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a> as signifying the absolute lack of any objective ground for action, a move that is often reduced to a <a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">moral</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Existential_nihilism" title="Existential nihilism">existential nihilism</a>. A pervasive theme in the works of existentialist philosophy, however, is to persist through encounters with the absurd, as seen in <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a>' <i>The Myth of Sisyphus</i> ("One must imagine Sisyphus happy"),<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> and it is only very rarely that existentialist philosophers dismiss morality or one's self-created meaning: Kierkegaard regained a sort of morality in the religious (although he wouldn't himself agree that it was ethical; the religious suspends the ethical), and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a>'s final words in <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> are "All these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory (or impure) reflection, can find their reply only on the ethical plane. We shall devote to them a future work."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The term "existentialism" was coined by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_France" title="Roman Catholicism in France">French Catholic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a> in the mid-1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_R._Flynn_2006.2C_page_89_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_R._Flynn_2006.2C_page_89-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Christine_Daigle_2006.2C_page_5_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christine_Daigle_2006.2C_page_5-44">[44]</a></sup> At first, when Marcel applied the term to him at a colloquium in 1945, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> rejected it.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Sartre subsequently changed his mind and, on October 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist label in a lecture to the <i>Club Maintenant</i> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. The lecture was published as <i><a href="/wiki/L%27existentialisme_est_un_humanisme" class="mw-redirect" title="L'existentialisme est un humanisme">L'existentialisme est un humanisme</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Existentialism_is_a_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialism is a Humanism">Existentialism is a Humanism</a>), a short book that did much to popularize existentialist thought.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup></p>
<p>Some scholars argue that the term should be used only to refer to the cultural movement in Europe in the 1940s and 1950s associated with the works of the philosophers <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell-SEoP-2">[2]</a></sup> Other scholars extend the term to Kierkegaard, and yet others extend it as far back as <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> However, the term is often identified with the philosophical views of Jean-Paul Sartre.<sup id="cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell-SEoP-2">[2]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kierkegaard_and_Nietzsche">Kierkegaard and Nietzsche</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Kierkegaard and Nietzsche">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard_and_Friedrich_Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche">Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> were two of the first philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement, though neither used the term "existentialism" and it is unclear whether they would have supported the existentialism of the 20th century. They focused on subjective human experience rather than the objective truths of mathematics and science, which they believed were too detached or observational to truly get at the human experience. Like <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a>, they were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape from <a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">boredom</a>. Unlike Pascal, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche also considered the role of making free choices, particularly regarding fundamental values and beliefs, and how such choices change the nature and identity of the chooser.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> Kierkegaard's <a href="/wiki/Knight_of_faith" title="Knight of faith">knight of faith</a> and Nietzsche's <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cbermensch" title="Übermensch">Übermensch</a> are representative of people who exhibit <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Freedom</a>, in that they define the nature of their own existence. Nietzsche's idealized individual invents his own values and creates the very terms they excel under. By contrast, Kierkegaard, opposed to the level of abstraction in Hegel, and not nearly as hostile (actually welcoming) to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> as Nietzsche, argues through a pseudonym that the objective certainty of religious truths (specifically Christian) is not only impossible, but even founded on logical paradoxes. Yet he continues to imply that a <a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">leap of faith</a> is a possible means for an individual to reach a higher stage of existence that transcends and contains both an aesthetic and ethical value of life. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were also precursors to other intellectual movements, including <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, and various strands of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. However, Kierkegaard believed that individuals should live in accordance with their thinking.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Dostoyevsky">Dostoyevsky</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Dostoyevsky">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The first important literary author also important to existentialism was the Russian <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoyevsky">Fyodor Dostoyevsky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Dostoyevsky's <i><a href="/wiki/Notes_from_Underground" title="Notes from Underground">Notes from Underground</a></i> portrays a man unable to fit into society and unhappy with the identities he creates for himself. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, in his book on existentialism <i><a href="/wiki/Existentialism_is_a_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialism is a Humanism">Existentialism is a Humanism</a></i>, quoted Dostoyevsky's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov" title="The Brothers Karamazov">The Brothers Karamazov</a></i> as an example of <a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">existential crisis</a>. Sartre attributes Ivan Karamazov's claim, "If God did not exist, everything would be permitted"<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> to Dostoyevsky himself, though this quote does not appear in the novel.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> However, a similar sentiment is explicitly stated when Alyosha visits Dimitri in prison. Dimitri mentions his conversations with Rakitin in which the idea that "Then, if He doesn't exist, man is king of the earth, of the universe" allowing the inference contained in Sartre's attribution to remain a valid idea contested within the novel.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Other Dostoyevsky novels covered issues raised in existentialist philosophy while presenting story lines divergent from secular existentialism: for example, in <i><a href="/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment" title="Crime and Punishment">Crime and Punishment</a></i>, the protagonist Raskolnikov experiences an existential crisis and then moves toward a Christian Orthodox worldview similar to that advocated by Dostoyevsky himself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Early 20th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></div>
<p>In the first decades of the 20th century, a number of philosophers and writers explored existentialist ideas. The Spanish philosopher <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno_y_Jugo" class="mw-redirect" title="Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo">Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo</a>, in his 1913 book <i>The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Nations</i>, emphasized the life of "flesh and bone" as opposed to that of abstract rationalism. Unamuno rejected systematic philosophy in favor of the individual's quest for faith. He retained a sense of the tragic, even absurd nature of the quest, symbolized by his enduring interest in <a href="/wiki/Cervantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervantes">Cervantes</a>' fictional character <a href="/wiki/Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a>. A novelist, poet and dramatist as well as philosophy professor at the University of Salamanca, Unamuno wrote a short story about a priest's crisis of faith, <i><a href="/wiki/San_Manuel_Bueno,_M%C3%A1rtir" title="San Manuel Bueno, Mártir">Saint Manuel the Good, Martyr</a></i>, which has been collected in anthologies of existentialist fiction. Another Spanish thinker, <a href="/wiki/Ortega_y_Gasset" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a>, writing in 1914, held that human existence must always be defined as the individual person combined with the concrete circumstances of his life: "<i>Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia</i>" ("I am myself and my circumstances"). Sartre likewise believed that human existence is not an abstract matter, but is always situated ("<i>en situation</i>").</p>
<p>Although <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> wrote his major philosophical works in German, and studied and taught at the Universities of Berlin and <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, he stands apart from the mainstream of German philosophy. Born into a Jewish family in Vienna in 1878, he was also a scholar of Jewish culture and involved at various times in <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hasidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidism">Hasidism</a>. In 1938, he moved permanently to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. His best-known philosophical work was the short book <i><a href="/wiki/I_and_Thou" title="I and Thou">I and Thou</a></i>, published in 1922. For Buber, the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientific rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is "man with man", a dialogue that takes place in the so-called "sphere of between" (<i>"das Zwischenmenschliche"</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup></p>
<p>Two Russian thinkers, <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev" title="Nikolai Berdyaev">Nikolai Berdyaev</a>, became well known as existentialist thinkers during their post-Revolutionary exiles in Paris. Shestov, born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in Kiev, had launched an attack on rationalism and systematization in philosophy as early as 1905 in his book of aphorisms <i>All Things Are Possible</i>.</p>
<p>Berdyaev, also from Kiev but with a background in the Eastern Orthodox Church, drew a radical distinction between the world of spirit and the everyday world of objects. Human freedom, for Berdyaev, is rooted in the realm of spirit, a realm independent of scientific notions of causation. To the extent the individual human being lives in the objective world, he is estranged from authentic spiritual freedom. "Man" is not to be interpreted naturalistically, but as a being created in God's image, an originator of free, creative acts.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> He published a major work on these themes, <i>The Destiny of Man</i>, in 1931.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a>, long before coining the term "existentialism", introduced important existentialist themes to a French audience in his early essay "Existence and Objectivity" (1925) and in his <i>Metaphysical Journal</i> (1927).<sup id="cite_ref-Samuel_M._Keen_1967_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samuel_M._Keen_1967-55">[55]</a></sup> A dramatist as well as a philosopher, Marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of metaphysical alienation: the human individual searching for harmony in a transient life. Harmony, for Marcel, was to be sought through "secondary reflection", a "dialogical" rather than "dialectical" approach to the world, characterized by "wonder and astonishment" and open to the "presence" of other people and of God rather than merely to "information" about them. For Marcel, such presence implied more than simply being there (as one thing might be in the presence of another thing); it connoted "extravagant" availability, and the willingness to put oneself at the disposal of the other.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup></p>
<p>Marcel contrasted <i>secondary reflection</i> with abstract, scientific-technical <i>primary reflection</i>, which he associated with the activity of the abstract <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Cartesian</a> ego. For Marcel, philosophy was a concrete activity undertaken by a sensing, feeling human being incarnate — embodied — in a concrete world.<sup id="cite_ref-Samuel_M._Keen_1967_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samuel_M._Keen_1967-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> adopted the term "existentialism" for his own philosophy in the 1940s, Marcel's thought has been described as "almost diametrically opposed" to that of Sartre.<sup id="cite_ref-Samuel_M._Keen_1967_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samuel_M._Keen_1967-55">[55]</a></sup> Unlike Sartre, Marcel was a Christian, and became a Catholic convert in 1929.</p>
<p>In Germany, the psychologist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> — who later described existentialism as a "phantom" created by the public <sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> — called his own thought, heavily influenced by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, <i>Existenzphilosophie</i>. For Jaspers, "<i>Existenz</i>-philosophy is the way of thought by means of which man seeks to become himself...This way of thought does not cognize objects, but elucidates and makes actual the being of the thinker."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>Jaspers, a professor at the University of <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>, was acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, who held a professorship at <a href="/wiki/Marburg" title="Marburg">Marburg</a> before acceding to Husserl's chair at <a href="/wiki/Freiburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiburg">Freiburg</a> in 1928. They held many philosophical discussions, but later became estranged over Heidegger's support of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">National Socialism</a>. They shared an admiration for Kierkegaard,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> and in the 1930s, Heidegger lectured extensively on Nietzsche. Nevertheless, the extent to which Heidegger should be considered an existentialist is debatable. In <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (<i>Dasein</i>) to be analysed in terms of existential categories (<i>existentiale</i>); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an important figure in the existentialist movement.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="After_the_Second_World_War">After the Second World War</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: After the Second World War">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, existentialism became a well-known and significant philosophical and cultural movement, mainly through the public prominence of two French writers, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>, who wrote best-selling novels, plays and widely read journalism as well as theoretical texts.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> These years also saw the growing reputation of Heidegger's book <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> outside Germany.</p>
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French philosophers <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a></div>
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<p>Sartre dealt with existentialist themes in his 1938 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Nausea_(novel)" title="Nausea (novel)">Nausea</a></i> and the short stories in his 1939 collection <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wall (book)">The Wall</a></i>, and had published his treatise on existentialism, <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i>, in 1943, but it was in the two years following the liberation of Paris from the German occupying forces that he and his close associates — Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and others — became internationally famous as the leading figures of a movement known as existentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-Ronald_Aronson_2004_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ronald_Aronson_2004-62">[62]</a></sup> In a very short period of time, Camus and Sartre in particular became the leading public intellectuals of post-war France, achieving by the end of 1945 "a fame that reached across all audiences."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> Camus was an editor of the most popular leftist (former <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>) newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Combat_(newspaper)" title="Combat (newspaper)">Combat</a></i>; Sartre launched his journal of leftist thought, <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Temps_Modernes" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Temps Modernes">Les Temps Modernes</a></i>, and two weeks later gave the widely reported lecture on existentialism and <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular humanism</a> to a packed meeting of the Club Maintenant. Beauvoir wrote that "not a week passed without the newspapers discussing us";<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> existentialism became "the first media craze of the postwar era."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></p>
<p>By the end of 1947, Camus' earlier fiction and plays had been reprinted, his new play <i><a href="/wiki/Caligula_(play)" title="Caligula (play)">Caligula</a></i> had been performed and his novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Plague" title="The Plague">The Plague</a></i> published; the first two novels of Sartre's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Roads_to_Freedom" title="The Roads to Freedom">The Roads to Freedom</a></i> trilogy had appeared, as had Beauvoir's novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Blood_of_Others" title="The Blood of Others">The Blood of Others</a></i>. Works by Camus and Sartre were already appearing in foreign editions. The Paris-based existentialists had become famous.<sup id="cite_ref-Ronald_Aronson_2004_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ronald_Aronson_2004-62">[62]</a></sup></p>
<p>Sartre had traveled to Germany in 1930 to study the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> and he included critical comments on their work in his major treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i>. Heidegger's thought had also become known in French philosophical circles through its use by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a> in explicating Hegel in a series of lectures given in Paris in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> The lectures were highly influential; members of the audience included not only Sartre and Merleau-Ponty, but <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Queneau" title="Raymond Queneau">Raymond Queneau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Georges Bataille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Breton" title="André Breton">André Breton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> A selection from Heidegger's <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> was published in French in 1938, and his essays began to appear in French philosophy journals.</p>
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French-Algerian philosopher, novelist, and playwright <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a></div>
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<p>Heidegger read Sartre's work and was initially impressed, commenting: "Here for the first time I encountered an independent thinker who, from the foundations up, has experienced the area out of which I think. Your work shows such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as I have never before encountered."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> Later, however, in response to a question posed by his French follower <a href="/wiki/Jean_Beaufret" title="Jean Beaufret">Jean Beaufret</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> Heidegger distanced himself from Sartre's position and existentialism in general in his <i>Letter on Humanism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Heidegger's reputation continued to grow in France during the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1960s, Sartre attempted to reconcile existentialism and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> in his work <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Dialectical_Reason" title="Critique of Dialectical Reason">Critique of Dialectical Reason</a></i>. A major theme throughout his writings was freedom and responsibility.</p>
<p>Camus was a friend of Sartre, until their falling-out, and wrote several works with existential themes including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rebel_(book)" title="The Rebel (book)">The Rebel</a></i>, <i>Summer in Algiers</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphus" title="The Myth of Sisyphus">The Myth of Sisyphus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Stranger_(novel)" title="The Stranger (novel)">The Stranger</a></i>, the latter being "considered—to what would have been Camus's irritation—the exemplary existentialist novel."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> Camus, like many others, rejected the existentialist label, and considered his works concerned with facing the absurd. In the titular book, Camus uses the analogy of the Greek myth of <a href="/wiki/Sisyphus" title="Sisyphus">Sisyphus</a> to demonstrate the futility of existence. In the myth, Sisyphus is condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, but when he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom again. Camus believes that this existence is pointless but that Sisyphus ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task, simply by continually applying himself to it. The first half of the book contains an extended rebuttal of what Camus took to be existentialist philosophy in the works of Kierkegaard, Shestov, Heidegger, and Jaspers.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, an important existentialist who spent much of her life as Sartre's partner, wrote about feminist and existentialist ethics in her works, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Ambiguity" title="The Ethics of Ambiguity">The Ethics of Ambiguity</a></i>. Although often overlooked due to her relationship with Sartre,<sup id="cite_ref-Bergoffen-SEoP_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergoffen-SEoP-73">[73]</a></sup> de Beauvoir integrated existentialism with other forms of thinking such as feminism, unheard of at the time, resulting in alienation from fellow writers such as Camus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a>, an important existentialist theologian following Kierkegaard and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a>, applied existentialist concepts to <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>, and helped introduce <a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">existential theology</a> to the general public. His seminal work <i>The Courage to Be</i> follows Kierkegaard's analysis of anxiety and life's absurdity, but puts forward the thesis that modern humans must, via God, achieve selfhood in spite of life's absurdity. <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a> used Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's philosophy of existence to demythologize Christianity by interpreting Christian mythical concepts into existentialist concepts.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Existential_phenomenology" title="Existential phenomenology">existential phenomenologist</a>, was for a time a companion of Sartre. Merleau-Ponty's <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Perception" title="Phenomenology of Perception">Phenomenology of Perception</a></i> (1945) was recognized as a major statement of French existentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> It has been said that Merleau-Ponty's work <i>Humanism and Terror</i> greatly influenced Sartre. However, in later years they were to disagree irreparably, dividing many existentialists such as de Beauvoir,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> who sided with Sartre.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Colin_Wilson" title="Colin Wilson">Colin Wilson</a>, an English writer, published his study <i><a href="/wiki/The_Outsider_(Colin_Wilson)" title="The Outsider (Colin Wilson)">The Outsider</a></i> in 1956, initially to critical acclaim. In this book and others (e.g. <i>Introduction to the New Existentialism</i>), he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic philosophy and bring it to a wider audience. He was not, however, academically trained, and his work was attacked by professional philosophers for lack of rigor and critical standards.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_outside_philosophy">Influence outside philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Influence outside philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Art">Art</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Film_and_television">Film and television</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Film and television">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" title="Stanley Kubrick">Stanley Kubrick</a>'s 1957 anti-war film <i><a href="/wiki/Paths_of_Glory" title="Paths of Glory">Paths of Glory</a></i> "illustrates, and even illuminates...existentialism" by examining the "necessary absurdity of the human condition" and the "horror of war".<sup id="cite_ref-Holt2007_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holt2007-76">[76]</a></sup> The film tells the story of a fictional World War I French army regiment ordered to attack an impregnable German stronghold; when the attack fails, three soldiers are chosen at random, court-martialed by a "kangaroo court", and executed by firing squad. The film examines existentialist ethics, such as the issue of whether objectivity is possible and the "problem of authenticity".<sup id="cite_ref-Holt2007_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holt2007-76">[76]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Orson Welles</a>' 1962 film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Trial_(1962_film)" title="The Trial (1962 film)">The Trial</a></i>, based upon Franz Kafka's book of the same name (Der Process), is characteristic of both existentialist and absurdist themes in its depiction of a man (Joseph K.) arrested for a crime for which the charges are neither revealed to him nor to the reader.</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Neon_Genesis_Evangelion_(anime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon Genesis Evangelion (anime)">Neon Genesis Evangelion</a></i> is a Japanese <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> animation series created by the <a href="/wiki/Anime" title="Anime">anime</a> studio <a href="/wiki/Gainax" title="Gainax">Gainax</a> and was both directed and written by <a href="/wiki/Hideaki_Anno" title="Hideaki Anno">Hideaki Anno</a>. Existential themes of individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility are heavily relied upon throughout the entire series, particularly through the philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>. Episode 16's title, "The Sickness Unto Death, And…" <span style="font-weight: normal">(<span class="t_nihongo_kanji" lang="ja">死?至る病?????</span><span class="t_nihongo_comma" style="display:none">,</span> <i>Shi ni itaru yamai, soshite</i><sup class="t_nihongo_help noprint"><a href="/wiki/Help:Installing_Japanese_character_sets" title="Help:Installing Japanese character sets"><span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color: #00e; font: bold 80% sans-serif; text-decoration: none; padding: 0 .1em;">?</span></a></sup>)</span> is a reference to Kierkegaard's book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sickness_Unto_Death" title="The Sickness Unto Death">The Sickness Unto Death</a></i>.</p>
<p>Some contemporary films dealing with existentialist issues include <i><a href="/wiki/Fight_Club" title="Fight Club">Fight Club</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/I_Heart_Huckabees" title="I Heart Huckabees">I ♥ Huckabees</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Waking_Life" title="Waking Life">Waking Life</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Matrix" title="The Matrix">The Matrix</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_People" title="Ordinary People">Ordinary People</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Life_in_a_Day_(2011_film)" title="Life in a Day (2011 film)">Life in a Day</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> Likewise, films throughout the 20th century such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Seventh_Seal" title="The Seventh Seal">The Seventh Seal</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ikiru" title="Ikiru">Ikiru</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taxi_Driver" title="Taxi Driver">Taxi Driver</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Toy_Story" title="Toy Story">Toy Story</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ghost_in_the_Shell_(1995_film)" title="Ghost in the Shell (1995 film)">Ghost in the Shell</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Harold_and_Maude" title="Harold and Maude">Harold and Maude</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/High_Noon" title="High Noon">High Noon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Easy_Rider" title="Easy Rider">Easy Rider</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo%27s_Nest_(film)" title="One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(film)" title="A Clockwork Orange (film)">A Clockwork Orange</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(film)" title="Groundhog Day (film)">Groundhog Day</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse_Now" title="Apocalypse Now">Apocalypse Now</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Badlands_(film)" title="Badlands (film)">Badlands</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Blade_Runner" title="Blade Runner">Blade Runner</a></i> also have existentialist qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup></p>
<p>Notable directors known for their existentialist films include <a href="/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman" title="Ingmar Bergman">Ingmar Bergman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Truffaut" title="François Truffaut">François Truffaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard" title="Jean-Luc Godard">Jean-Luc Godard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo_Antonioni" title="Michelangelo Antonioni">Michelangelo Antonioni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa" title="Akira Kurosawa">Akira Kurosawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Malick" title="Terrence Malick">Terrence Malick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" title="Stanley Kubrick">Stanley Kubrick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky" title="Andrei Tarkovsky">Andrei Tarkovsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hideaki_Anno" title="Hideaki Anno">Hideaki Anno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wes_Anderson" title="Wes Anderson">Wes Anderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woody_Allen" title="Woody Allen">Woody Allen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kaufman" title="Charlie Kaufman">Charlie Kaufman</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Synecdoche,_New_York" title="Synecdoche, New York">Synecdoche, New York</a></i> focuses on the protagonist's desire to find existential meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> Similarly, in Kurosawa's <i><a href="/wiki/Red_Beard" title="Red Beard">Red Beard</a></i>, the protagonist's experiences as an intern in a rural health clinic in Japan lead him to an <a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">existential crisis</a> whereby he questions his reason for being. This, in turn, leads him to a better understanding of humanity.</p>
<p>Recently released French film, <i><a href="/wiki/Mood_Indigo_(film)" title="Mood Indigo (film)">Mood Indigo</a></i> (directed by <a href="/wiki/Michel_Gondry" title="Michel Gondry">Michel Gondry</a>) embraced various elements of existentialism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>The film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Shawshank_Redemption" title="The Shawshank Redemption">The Shawshank Redemption</a></i>, released in 1994, depicts life in a prison in <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, United States to explore several existentialist concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Literature">Literature</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Existential perspectives are also found in modern literature to varying degrees, especially since the 1920s. <a href="/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_End_of_the_Night" title="Journey to the End of the Night">Journey to the End of the Night</a></i> (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932) celebrated by both Sartre and Beauvoir, contained many of the themes that would be found in later existential literature, and is in some ways, the proto-existential novel. Jean-Paul Sartre's 1938 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Nausea_(novel)" title="Nausea (novel)">Nausea</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-SartreNausea_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SartreNausea-82">[82]</a></sup> was "steeped in Existential ideas", and is considered an accessible way of grasping his philosophical stance.<sup id="cite_ref-Earnshaw2006_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earnshaw2006-83">[83]</a></sup> Between 1900 and 1960, other authors such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke" title="Rainer Maria Rilke">Rainer Maria Rilke</a>, <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herman_Hesse" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Hesse">Herman Hesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-luigitheatre_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luigitheatre-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-understandex_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-understandex-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-masks_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-masks-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-luigip_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luigip-84">[84]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-luigi_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luigi-85">[85]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-playwrights_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-playwrights-86">[86]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Ellison" title="Ralph Ellison">Ralph Ellison</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ellison_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ellison-87">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-existentialamerica_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-existentialamerica-88">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-readinglearning_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-readinglearning-89">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ellisongenius_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ellisongenius-90">[90]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kerouac" title="Jack Kerouac">Jack Kerouac</a>, composed literature or poetry that contained, to varying degrees, elements of existential or proto-existential thought. The philosophy's influence even reached pulp literature shortly after the turn of the 20th century, as seen in the existential disparity witnessed in Man's lack of control of his fate in the works of <a href="/wiki/H.P._Lovecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="H.P. Lovecraft">H.P. Lovecraft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup> Since the late 1960s, a great deal of cultural activity in literature contains <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> as well as existential elements. Books such as <i><a href="/wiki/Do_Androids_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F" title="Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?">Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</a></i> (1968) (now republished as <i><a href="/wiki/Blade_Runner" title="Blade Runner">Blade Runner</a></i>) by <a href="/wiki/Philip_K._Dick" title="Philip K. Dick">Philip K. Dick</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse-Five" title="Slaughterhouse-Five">Slaughterhouse-Five</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Vonnegut" title="Kurt Vonnegut">Kurt Vonnegut</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Fight_Club_(novel)" title="Fight Club (novel)">Fight Club</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Palahniuk" title="Chuck Palahniuk">Chuck Palahniuk</a> all distort the line between reality and appearance while simultaneously espousing existential themes.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Theatre">Theatre</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Theatre">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/No_Exit" title="No Exit">No Exit</a></i> in 1944, an existentialist <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">play</a> originally published in French as <i>Huis Clos</i> (meaning <i><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/in_camera" class="extiw" title="wikt:in camera">In Camera</a></i> or "behind closed doors"), which is the source of the popular quote, "Hell is other people." (In French, "L'enfer, c'est les autres"). The play begins with a Valet leading a man into a room that the audience soon realizes is in hell. Eventually he is joined by two women. After their entry, the Valet leaves and the door is shut and locked. All three expect to be tortured, but no torturer arrives. Instead, they realize they are there to torture each other, which they do effectively by probing each other's sins, desires, and unpleasant memories.</p>
<p>Existentialist themes are displayed in the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</a>, notably in <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot" title="Waiting for Godot">Waiting for Godot</a></i>, in which two men divert themselves while they wait expectantly for someone (or something) named Godot who never arrives. They claim Godot is an acquaintance, but in fact, hardly know him, admitting they would not recognize him if they saw him. Samuel Beckett, once asked who or what Godot is, replied, "If I knew, I would have said so in the play." To occupy themselves, the men eat, sleep, talk, argue, sing, play games, <a href="/wiki/Physical_exercise" title="Physical exercise">exercise</a>, swap hats, and contemplate <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>—anything "to hold the terrible silence at bay".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> The play "exploits several archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and <a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> The play also illustrates an attitude toward human experience on earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment of human experience that can be reconciled only in the mind and art of the absurdist. The play examines questions such as death, the <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life_(philosophy)#Existentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning of life (philosophy)">meaning of human existence</a> and the place of God in human existence.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Rosencrantz_%26_Guildenstern_Are_Dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosencrantz &amp; Guildenstern Are Dead">Rosencrantz &amp; Guildenstern Are Dead</a></i> is an <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" title="Theatre of the Absurd">absurdist</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">tragicomedy</a> first staged at the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival_Fringe" title="Edinburgh Festival Fringe">Edinburgh Festival Fringe</a> in 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-Chrono_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chrono-94">[94]</a></sup> The play expands upon the exploits of two minor characters from <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>. Comparisons have also been drawn to <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Waiting_For_Godot" class="mw-redirect" title="Waiting For Godot">Waiting For Godot</a></i>, for the presence of two central characters who appear almost as two halves of a single character. Many plot features are similar as well: the characters pass time by playing <a href="/wiki/Questions_(game)" title="Questions (game)">Questions</a>, impersonating other characters, and interrupting each other or remaining silent for long periods of time. The two characters are portrayed as two clowns or fools in a world beyond their understanding. They stumble through philosophical arguments while not realizing the implications, and muse on the irrationality and randomness of the world.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Anouilh" title="Jean Anouilh">Jean Anouilh</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Antigone_(Anouilh_play)" title="Antigone (Anouilh play)">Antigone</a></i> also presents arguments founded on existentialist ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> It is a tragedy inspired by Greek mythology and the play of the same name (Antigone, by Sophocles) from the 5th century BC. In English, it is often distinguished from its antecedent by being pronounced in its original French form, approximately "Ante-GŌN." The play was first performed in Paris on 6 February 1944, during the Nazi occupation of France. Produced under Nazi censorship, the play is purposefully ambiguous with regards to the rejection of authority (represented by Antigone) and the acceptance of it (represented by Creon). The parallels to the French Resistance and the Nazi occupation have been drawn. Antigone rejects life as desperately meaningless but without affirmatively choosing a noble death. The crux of the play is the lengthy dialogue concerning the nature of power, fate, and choice, during which Antigone says that she is, "...&#160;disgusted with [the]...promise of a humdrum happiness." She states that she would rather die than live a mediocre existence.</p>
<p>Critic <a href="/wiki/Martin_Esslin" title="Martin Esslin">Martin Esslin</a> in his book <i>Theatre of the Absurd</i> pointed out how many contemporary playwrights such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Genet" title="Jean Genet">Jean Genet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Adamov" title="Arthur Adamov">Arthur Adamov</a> wove into their plays the existentialist belief that we are absurd beings loose in a universe empty of real meaning. Esslin noted that many of these playwrights demonstrated the philosophy better than did the plays by Sartre and Camus. Though most of such playwrights, subsequently labeled "Absurdist" (based on Esslin's book), denied affiliations with existentialism and were often staunchly anti-philosophical (for example Ionesco often claimed he identified more with <a href="/wiki/%27Pataphysics" title="'Pataphysics">'Pataphysics</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> than with existentialism), the playwrights are often linked to existentialism based on Esslin's observation.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Psychoanalysis_and_psychotherapy">Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Existential_therapy" title="Existential therapy">Existential therapy</a></div>
<p>A major offshoot of existentialism as a philosophy is existentialist psychology and psychoanalysis, which first crystallized in the work of <a href="/wiki/Otto_Rank" title="Otto Rank">Otto Rank</a>, Freud's closest associate for 20 years. Without awareness of the writings of Rank, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Binswanger" title="Ludwig Binswanger">Ludwig Binswanger</a> was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a>. A later figure was <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Frankl" title="Viktor Frankl">Viktor Frankl</a>, who briefly met <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a> and studied with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung</a> as a young man.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Logotherapy" title="Logotherapy">logotherapy</a> can be regarded as a form of existentialist therapy. The existentialists would also influence <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, antipositivist micro-<a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, with the work of thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>. Foucault was a great reader of Kierkegaard even though he almost never refers this author, who nonetheless had for him an importance as secret as it was decisive.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup></p>
<p>An early contributor to existentialist psychology in the United States was <a href="/wiki/Rollo_May" title="Rollo May">Rollo May</a>, who was strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Rank" title="Otto Rank">Otto Rank</a>. One of the most prolific writers on techniques and theory of existentialist psychology in the USA is <a href="/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom" title="Irvin D. Yalom">Irvin D. Yalom</a>. Yalom states that</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Aside from their reaction against Freud's mechanistic, deterministic model of the mind and their assumption of a phenomenological approach in therapy, the existentialist analysts have little in common and have never been regarded as a cohesive ideological school. These thinkers - who include Ludwig Binswanger, <a href="/wiki/Medard_Boss" title="Medard Boss">Medard Boss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Minkowski" title="Eugène Minkowski">Eugène Minkowski</a>, V.E. Gebsattel, Roland Kuhn, G. Caruso, F.T. Buytendijk, G. Bally and Victor Frankl - were almost entirely unknown to the American psychotherapeutic community until Rollo May's highly influential 1985 book <i>Existence</i> - and especially his introductory essay - introduced their work into this country.<sup id="cite_ref-Yalom1980_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yalom1980-100">[100]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>A more recent contributor to the development of a European version of existentialist psychotherapy is the British-based <a href="/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen" title="Emmy van Deurzen">Emmy van Deurzen</a>.</p>
<p>Anxiety's importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>. Therapists often offer existentialist <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> as an explanation for anxiety. The assertion is that anxiety is manifested of an individual's complete freedom to decide, and complete responsibility for the outcome of such decisions. Psychotherapists using an existentialist approach believe that a patient can harness his anxiety and use it constructively. Instead of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as grounds for change. By embracing anxiety as inevitable, a person can use it to achieve his full potential in life. <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychology</a> also had major impetus from existentialist psychology and shares many of the fundamental tenets. <a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a>, based on the writings of <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Ernest Becker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Rank" title="Otto Rank">Otto Rank</a>, is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. It looks at what researchers claim are implicit emotional reactions of people confronted with the knowledge that they will eventually die.</p>
<p>Also, <a href="/wiki/Gerd_B._Achenbach" title="Gerd B. Achenbach">Gerd B. Achenbach</a> has refreshed the socratic tradition with his own blend of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_counseling" title="Philosophical counseling">philosophical counseling</a>. So did <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a> with his Chromatiques Center in Belgium.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticisms">Criticisms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Criticisms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General_criticisms">General criticisms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: General criticisms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a> criticized 'the profoundly unsound methods and the dangerous contempt for reason that have been so prominent in existentialism.'<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivists" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical positivists">Logical positivist</a> philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> and <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>, assert that existentialists are often confused about the verb "to be" in their analyses of "being".<sup id="cite_ref-Carnap.2C_Rudolf_1932_pp.219_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carnap.2C_Rudolf_1932_pp.219-102">[102]</a></sup> Specifically, they argue that the verb is transitive and pre-fixed to a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> (e.g., an apple <i>is red</i>) (without a predicate, the word is meaningless), and that existentialists frequently misuse the term in this manner.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Colin_Wilson" title="Colin Wilson">Colin Wilson</a> has stated in his book <i>The Angry Years</i> that existentialism has created many of its own difficulties: "we can see how this question of freedom of the will has been vitiated by post-romantic philosophy, with its inbuilt tendency to laziness and boredom, we can also see how it came about that existentialism found itself in a hole of its own digging, and how the philosophical developments since then have amounted to walking in circles round that hole".<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sartre.27s_philosophy">Sartre's philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Sartre's philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Many critics argue Sartre's philosophy is contradictory. Specifically, they argue that Sartre makes metaphysical arguments despite his claiming that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a> criticized <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> (1943) by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: "Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">hypostatizes</a> specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory".<sup id="cite_ref-Marcuse1972_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcuse1972-104">[104]</a></sup></p>
<p>In <i>Letter on Humanism</i>, Heidegger criticized Sartre's existentialism:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Existentialism says existence precedes essence. In this statement he is taking <i>existentia</i> and <i>essentia</i> according to their metaphysical meaning, which, from Plato's time on, has said that <i>essentia</i> precedes <i>existentia</i>. Sartre reverses this statement. But the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement. With it, he stays with metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of Being.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abandonment_(existentialism)" title="Abandonment (existentialism)">Abandonment (existentialism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disenchantment" title="Disenchantment">Disenchantment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existential_phenomenology" title="Existential phenomenology">Existential phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentiell" title="Existentiell">Existentiell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_existentialists" title="List of existentialists">List of existentialists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning (existential)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Specific">Specific</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Specific">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford University Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/existentialism">"Oxford Dictionary: 'existentialism'"</a>, <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>, Retrieved 22 August 2014.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Crowell-SEoP-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crowell-SEoP_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Crowell, Steven (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/">"Existentialism"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Existentialism&amp;rft.au=Crowell%2C+Steven&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2010-10&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fexistentialism%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pp. 18–21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Philosophy_1995_p._259-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Philosophy_1995_p._259_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>, ed. Ted Honderich, New York (1995), p. 259.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pp. 14–15.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Flynn, Thomas (2006). <i>Existentialism - A Very Short Introduction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. p.&#160;xi. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280428-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280428-6">0-19-280428-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.aulast=Flynn&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism+-+A+Very+Short+Introduction&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-280428-6&amp;rft.pages=xi&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Robert_C._Solomon_1974.2C_pp._1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robert_C._Solomon_1974.2C_pp._1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert C. Solomon, <i>Existentialism</i> (McGraw-Hill, 1974, pp. 1–2).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Breisach, <i>Introduction to Modern Existentialism</i>, New York (1962), p. 5.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Kaufmann, <i>Existentialism: From Dostoyevesky to Sartre</i>, New York (1956) p. 12.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marino, Gordon. <i>Basic Writings of Existentialism</i> (Modern Library, 2004, p. ix, 3).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-McDonald2009Stanford-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McDonald2009Stanford_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">McDonald, William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2009/entries/kierkegaard/">"Søren Kierkegaard"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> (Summer 2009 Edition)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=S%C3%B8ren+Kierkegaard&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rft.aulast=McDonald&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Summer+2009+Edition%29&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2009%2Fentries%2Fkierkegaard%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">However he did title his 1846 book <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</i>, (Subtitle) A Mimical-Pathetic-Dialectical Compilation an Existential Contribution, and mentioned the term on pages 121-122, 191, 350-351, 387ff of that book. and he did, in fact, use it like this:</span>
<blockquote>
<p><span class="reference-text">"All skepticism is a kind of idealism. Hence when the sceptic <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a> pursued the study of skepticism by endeavoring existentially to keep himself unaffected by whatever happened, so that when once he had gone out of his way to avoid a mad dog, he shamefacedly admitted that even a skeptical philosopher is also sometimes a man, I find nothing ridiculous in this. There is no contradiction, and the comical always lies in a contradiction. On the other hand, when one thinks of all the miserable idealistic lecture-witticisms, the jesting and coquetry in connection with playing the idealist while in the professorial chair, so that the lecturer is not really an idealist, but only plays the fashionable game of being an idealist; when one remembers the lecture-phrase about doubting everything, while occupying the lecture platform, aye, then it is impossible not to write a satire merely by recounting the facts. Through an existential attempt to be an idealist, one would learn in the course of half a year something very different from this game of hide-and-seek on the lecture platform. There is no special difficulty connected with being an <a href="/wiki/Idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealist">idealist</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>; but to exist as an idealist is an extremely strenuous task, because existence itself constitutes a hindrance and an objection. To express existentially what one has understood about oneself, and in this manner to understand oneself, is in no way comical. But to understand everything except one’s own self is very comical." Soren Kierkegaard, <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</i> 1846 p. 315-316 translated by David F. Swenson and Walter Lowrie 1941 Fifth Printing Princeton University Press</span></p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watts, Michael. <i>Kierkegaard</i> (Oneworld, 2003, pp.4-6).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lowrie, Walter. <i>Kierkegaard's attack upon "Christendom"</i> (Princeton, 1969, pp. 37-40).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Guignon and Pereboom, Derk, Charles B. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=NSvRzPye-gEC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q=psychoanalysis&amp;f=false"><i>Existentialism: basic writings</i></a>. Hackett Publishing. p.&#160;xiii. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780872205956" title="Special:BookSources/9780872205956">9780872205956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles+B.&amp;rft.aulast=Guignon+and+Pereboom%2C+Derk&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism%3A+basic+writings&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DNSvRzPye-gEC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dpsychoanalysis%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=9780872205956&amp;rft.pages=xiii&amp;rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Copleston, F.C. (2009). "Existentialism". <i>Philosophy</i> <b>23</b> (84): 19–37. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031819100065955">10.1017/S0031819100065955</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4544850">4544850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Existentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=F.C.&amp;rft.aulast=Copleston&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4544850&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0031819100065955&amp;rft.issue=84&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=19-37&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=23" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/James_Wood_(critic)" title="James Wood (critic)">James Wood</a>'s introduction to <cite class="citation book">Sartre, Jean-Paul (2000). <i>Nausea</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Classics" title="Penguin Classics">Penguin Classics</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-141-18549-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-141-18549-1">978-0-141-18549-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&amp;rft.aulast=Sartre&amp;rft.btitle=Nausea&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-141-18549-1&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> Quote on p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CGbBbtDOZbwC&amp;pg=PT5">vii</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening, Vol 45, nummer 10, 2008, side 1298-1304, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psykologtidsskriftet.no/index.php?seks_id=61613&amp;a=2">Welhaven og psykologien: Del 2. Welhaven peker fremover</a> (in Norwegian)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lundestad, 1998, pp. 169</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slagstad, 2001, p 89</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seip, 2007, p 352</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(French)</span> (Dictionary) "L'existencialisme" - see "l'identité de la personne"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-158591-6">0-13-158591-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Baird&amp;rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&amp;rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-158591-6&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#AnxNotAbs">3.1 Anxiety, Nothingness, the Absurd</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-luigitheatre-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-luigitheatre_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-luigitheatre_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bassnett, Susan; Lorch, Jennifer (March 18, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FpwiAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA182&amp;dq=luigi+pirandello+existentialism&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=oIQTVb7lDMnxoASF14LIAQ&amp;ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&amp;q=existentialist&amp;f=false"><i>Luigi Pirandello in the Theatre</i></a>. Routledge<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Susan&amp;rft.aulast=Bassnett&amp;rft.au=Lorch%2C+Jennifer&amp;rft.btitle=Luigi+Pirandello+in+the+Theatre&amp;rft.date=2014-03-18&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFpwiAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA182%26dq%3Dluigi%2Bpirandello%2Bexistentialism%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DoIQTVb7lDMnxoASF14LIAQ%26ved%3D0CDwQ6AEwAw%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dexistentialist%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-understandex-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-understandex_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-understandex_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Thompson, Mel; Rodgers, Nigel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfczAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT105&amp;dq=pirandello+existentialism&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=ZIYTVZSCK5CeoQT_poLgBA&amp;ved=0CDQQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;q=pirandello%20existentialism&amp;f=false"><i>Understanding Existentialism: Teach Yourself</i></a>. Hodder &amp; Stoughton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Mel&amp;rft.aulast=Thompson&amp;rft.au=Rodgers%2C+Nigel&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Existentialism%3A+Teach+Yourself&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvfczAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT105%26dq%3Dpirandello%2Bexistentialism%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DZIYTVZSCK5CeoQT_poLgBA%26ved%3D0CDQQ6AEwBA%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dpirandello%2520existentialism%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=Hodder+%26+Stoughton&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-crisisconsciousness-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-crisisconsciousness_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Caputi, Anthony Francis (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Qv2nuJF7yYC&amp;pg=PA80&amp;dq=pirandello+existential+absurd&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=4YYTVYCyJcrVoAS9_IKwBA&amp;ved=0CDkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&amp;q=pirandello%20existentialist%20absurdity&amp;f=false"><i>Pirandello and the Crisis of Modern Consciousness</i></a>. University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony+Francis&amp;rft.aulast=Caputi&amp;rft.btitle=Pirandello+and+the+Crisis+of+Modern+Consciousness&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Qv2nuJF7yYC%26pg%3DPA80%26dq%3Dpirandello%2Bexistential%2Babsurd%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D4YYTVYCyJcrVoAS9_IKwBA%26ved%3D0CDkQ6AEwAw%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dpirandello%2520existentialist%2520absurdity%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-masks-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-masks_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-masks_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mariani, Umberto (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vBviYn43H34C&amp;pg=PT178&amp;dq=pirandello+existential+absurd&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=4YYTVYCyJcrVoAS9_IKwBA&amp;ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=pirandello%20existential%20absurd&amp;f=false"><i>Living Masks: The Achievement of Pirandello</i></a>. University of Toronto Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Umberto&amp;rft.aulast=Mariani&amp;rft.btitle=Living+Masks%3A+The+Achievement+of+Pirandello&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvBviYn43H34C%26pg%3DPT178%26dq%3Dpirandello%2Bexistential%2Babsurd%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D4YYTVYCyJcrVoAS9_IKwBA%26ved%3D0CC0Q6AEwAQ%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dpirandello%2520existential%2520absurd%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jean-Paul Sartre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm">"Existentialism is a Humanism, Jean-Paul Sartre 1946"</a>. Marxists.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.au=Jean-Paul+Sartre&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism+is+a+Humanism%2C+Jean-Paul+Sartre+1946&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Freference%2Farchive%2Fsartre%2Fworks%2Fexist%2Fsartre.htm&amp;rft.pub=Marxists.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">E Keen (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=PSAR.060.0575A">"Suicide and Self-Deception"</a>. Psychoanalytic Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Suicide+and+Self-Deception&amp;rft.au=E+Keen&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pep-web.org%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3DPSAR.060.0575A&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#FacTra">2.1 Facticity and Transcendence</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#FreVal">3. Freedom and Value</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#IdeVal">3.2 The Ideality of Values</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#Aut">2.3 Authenticity</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#Ali">2.2 Alienation</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tfd.com/despair">"despair - definition of despair by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia"</a>. Tfd.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.btitle=despair+-+definition+of+despair+by+the+Free+Online+Dictionary%2C+Thesaurus+and+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tfd.com%2Fdespair&amp;rft.pub=Tfd.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Either/Or Part II p. 188 Hong</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Søren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers</i> Vol 5, p. 5</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kierkegaard, Soren. <i>Works of Love</i>. Harper &amp; Row, Publishers. New York, N.Y. 1962. p. 62</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Camus, Albert. "The Myth of Sisyphus". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyu.edu/classes/keefer/hell/camus.html">NYU.edu</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Paul Sartre, <i>Being and Nothingness</i>, Routledge Classics (2003).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D.E. Cooper <i>Existentialism: A Reconstruction</i> (Basil Blackwell, 1990, page 1)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Thomas_R._Flynn_2006.2C_page_89-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_R._Flynn_2006.2C_page_89_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas R. Flynn, <i>Existentialism: A Very Short Introduction</i> (Oxford University Press), 2006, page 89</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Christine_Daigle_2006.2C_page_5-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Daigle_2006.2C_page_5_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christine Daigle, <i>Existentialist Thinkers and Ethics</i> (McGill-Queen's press, 2006, page 5)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann Fulton, Apostles of Sartre: Existentialism in America, 1945-1963 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1999) 18-19.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>L'Existentialisme est un Humanisme</i> (Editions Nagel, 1946); <i>English</i> Jean-Paul Sartre, <i>Existentialism and Humanism</i> (Eyre Methuen, 1948)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crowell, Steven. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Existentialism</i>, Cambridge, 2011, p. 316.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luper, Steven. "Existing". Mayfield Publishing, 2000, p.4–5 and 11</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hubben, William. <i>Dostoyevsky, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche and Kafka, Jabber-wacky</i>, Scribner, 1997.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sartre, Jean-Paul. <i>Existentialism is a Humanism</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm">http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm</a>&#160;; Retrieved 2012-04-01.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Zizek, Slavoj. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.egs.edu/faculty/slavoj-zizek/articles/if-there-is-a-god-then-anything-is-permitted/">"If there is a God, then everything is permitted"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.au=Zizek%2C+Slavoj&amp;rft.btitle=If+there+is+a+God%2C+then+everything+is+permitted&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.egs.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fslavoj-zizek%2Farticles%2Fif-there-is-a-god-then-anything-is-permitted%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dostoyevsky Fyodor. "<a href="/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov" title="The Brothers Karamazov">The Brothers Karamazov</a>".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maurice S. Friedman, <i>Martin Buber. The Life of Dialogue</i> (University of Chicago press, 1955, page 85)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Breisach, <i>Introduction to Modern Existentialism</i>, New York (1962), pages 173–176</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Samuel_M._Keen_1967-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Samuel_M._Keen_1967_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samuel_M._Keen_1967_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samuel_M._Keen_1967_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Samuel M. Keen, "Gabriel Marcel" in Paul Edwards (ed.) <i>The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy</i> (Macmillan Publishing Co, 1967)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i> (Pelican, 1973, page 110)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i> (Pelican, 1973, page 96)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Jaspers, "Philosophical Autobiography" in Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.) <i>The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers (The Library of Living Philosophers IX (Tudor Publishing Company, 1957, page 75/11)</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Jaspers, "Philosophical Autobiography" in Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.) <i>The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers (The Library of Living Philosophers IX (Tudor Publishing Company, 1957, page 40)</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Jaspers, "Philosophical Autobiography" in Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.) <i>The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers (The Library of Living Philosophers IX (Tudor Publishing Company, 1957, page 75/2 and following)</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Baert, <i>The Existentialist Moment; The Rise of Sartre as a Public Intellectual</i> (Polity Press, 2015)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Ronald_Aronson_2004-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ronald_Aronson_2004_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ronald_Aronson_2004_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Aronson, <i>Camus and Sartre</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2004, chapter 3 <i>passim</i>)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Aronson, <i>Camus and Sartre</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2004, page 44)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simone de Beauvoir, <i>Force of Circumstance</i>, quoted in Ronald Aronson, <i>Camus and Sartre</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2004, page 48)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Aronson, <i>Camus and Sartre</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2004, page 48)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rüdiger Safranski, <i>Martin Heidgger — Between Good and Evil</i> (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 343</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Entry on Kojève in Martin Cohen (editor), <i>The Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics</i>(Hodder Arnold, 2006, page 158); see also Alexandre Kojève, <i>Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit</i> (Cornell University Press, 1980)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Entry on Kojève in Martin Cohen (editor), <i>The Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics</i>(Hodder Arnold, 2006, page 158)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Hediegger, letter, quoted in Rüdiger Safranski, <i>Martin Heidgger — Between Good and Evil</i> (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 349)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rüdiger Safranski, <i>Martin Heidegger — Between Good and Evil</i> (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 356)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William J. Richardson, <i>Martin Heidegger: From Phenomenology to Thought</i> (Martjinus Nijhoff,1967, page 351)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Claire_Messud" title="Claire Messud">Messud, Claire</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/jun/05/camus-new-letranger/">"A New 'L'Étranger<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i> <b>61</b> (10)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=A+New+%27L%27%C3%89tranger%27&amp;rft.aufirst=Claire&amp;rft.aulast=Messud&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2Farchives%2F2014%2Fjun%2F05%2Fcamus-new-letranger%2F&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=61" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Bergoffen-SEoP-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bergoffen-SEoP_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Bergoffen, Debra (September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauvoir/">"Simone de Beauvoir"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Simone+de+Beauvoir&amp;rft.au=Bergoffen%2C+Debra&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2010-09&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fbeauvoir%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madison, G. B., in Robert Audi's <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) [p. 559]</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. Gunnar Bergström, <i>An Odyssey to Freedom</i> University of Uppsala, 1983, page 92;Colin Stanley, <i>Colin Wilson, a Celebration: Essays and Recollections</i> Cecil Woolf, 1988, page 43)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Holt2007-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holt2007_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holt2007_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holt, Jason. "Existential Ethics: Where do the Paths of Glory Lead?". In <i>The Philosophy of Stanley Kubr</i>ick. By Jerold J. Abrams. Published 2007. University Press of Kentucky. SBN 0-8131-2445-X</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.existential-therapy.com/Arts/Movies.htm">"Existential &amp; Psychological Movie Recommendations"</a>. Existential-therapy.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.btitle=Existential+%26+Psychological+Movie+Recommendations&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.existential-therapy.com%2FArts%2FMovies.htm&amp;rft.pub=Existential-therapy.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/BEAUCHEMI/">"Existentialism in Film"</a>. Uhaweb.hartford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism+in+Film&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuhaweb.hartford.edu%2FBEAUCHEMI%2F&amp;rft.pub=Uhaweb.hartford.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hcl.harvard.edu/hfa/films/2005winter/existential.html">"Existentialist Adaptations - Harvard Film Archive"</a>. Hcl.harvard.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialist+Adaptations+-+Harvard+Film+Archive&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhcl.harvard.edu%2Fhfa%2Ffilms%2F2005winter%2Fexistential.html&amp;rft.pub=Hcl.harvard.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Chocano, Carina (2008-10-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/movies/la-et-synecdoche24-2008oct24,0,5252277.story">"Review: 'Synecdoche, New York<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</span>"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Review%3A+%27Synecdoche%2C+New+York%27&amp;rft.aufirst=Carina&amp;rft.aulast=Chocano&amp;rft.date=2008-10-24&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fentertainment%2Fnews%2Fmovies%2Fla-et-synecdoche24-2008oct24%2C0%2C5252277.story&amp;rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an examination of the existentialist elements within the film, see <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_Now" title="Philosophy Now">Philosophy Now</a>, issue 102, accessible <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophynow.org/issues/102/The_Shawshank_Redemption">here (link)</a>, accessed 3rd June 2014.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SartreNausea-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SartreNausea_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Sartre, Jean-Paul (2000) [1938]. "Nausea". Translated by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Baldick" title="Robert Baldick">Baldick, Robert</a>. London: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Nausea&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&amp;rft.aulast=Sartre&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Earnshaw2006-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Earnshaw2006_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Earnshaw, Steven (2006). <i>Existentialism: A Guide for the Perplexed</i>. London: Continuum. p.&#160;75. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-8530-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-8530-8">0-8264-8530-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft.aulast=Earnshaw&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Perplexed&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-8264-8530-8&amp;rft.pages=75&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Continuum&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-luigip-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-luigip_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cincotta, Madeleine Strong (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUIoPQAACAAJ&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Madeleine+Strong+Cincotta%22&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=54ITVbWWDofeoAT6sYGQBw&amp;ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA"><i>Luigi Pirandello: The Humorous Existentialist</i></a>. University of Wollongong Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Madeleine+Strong&amp;rft.aulast=Cincotta&amp;rft.btitle=Luigi+Pirandello%3A+The+Humorous+Existentialist&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCUIoPQAACAAJ%26dq%3Dinauthor%3A%2522Madeleine%2BStrong%2BCincotta%2522%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D54ITVbWWDofeoAT6sYGQBw%26ved%3D0CCcQ6AEwAA&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Wollongong+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-luigi-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-luigi_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bassanese, Fiora A. (Jan 1, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4E-1Xg79ujUC&amp;pg=PP4&amp;dq=luigi+pirandello+existential&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=Y4MTVZKHDpHyoATY84LgCQ&amp;ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=existential&amp;f=false"><i>Understanding Luigi Pirandello</i></a>. University of South Carolina Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Fiora+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Bassanese&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Luigi+Pirandello&amp;rft.date=1997-01-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4E-1Xg79ujUC%26pg%3DPP4%26dq%3Dluigi%2Bpirandello%2Bexistential%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DY4MTVZKHDpHyoATY84LgCQ%26ved%3D0CDcQ6AEwAg%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dexistential%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-playwrights-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-playwrights_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">DiGaetani, John Louis (Jan 25, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A5C9gbBCwvYC&amp;pg=PA34&amp;dq=luigi+pirandello+existentialism&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=L4QTVcWyNJfgoATMuoLYDg&amp;ved=0CCUQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&amp;q=luigi%20pirandello%20existentialism&amp;f=false"><i>Stages of Struggle: Modern Playwrights and Their Psychological Inspirations</i></a>. McFarland<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=John+Louis&amp;rft.aulast=DiGaetani&amp;rft.btitle=Stages+of+Struggle%3A+Modern+Playwrights+and+Their+Psychological+Inspirations&amp;rft.date=2008-01-25&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA5C9gbBCwvYC%26pg%3DPA34%26dq%3Dluigi%2Bpirandello%2Bexistentialism%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DL4QTVcWyNJfgoATMuoLYDg%26ved%3D0CCUQ6AEwADgK%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dluigi%2520pirandello%2520existentialism%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=McFarland&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ellison-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ellison_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Graham, Maryemma; Singh, Amritjit (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L0lb8WoLRDkC&amp;pg=PA84&amp;dq=ralph+ellison+existential&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw&amp;ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&amp;q=existentialism&amp;f=false"><i>Conversations with Ralph Ellison</i></a>. University of Mississippi Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Maryemma&amp;rft.aulast=Graham&amp;rft.au=Singh%2C+Amritjit&amp;rft.btitle=Conversations+with+Ralph+Ellison&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL0lb8WoLRDkC%26pg%3DPA84%26dq%3Dralph%2Bellison%2Bexistential%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw%26ved%3D0CCcQ6AEwAA%23v%3Dsnippet%26q%3Dexistentialism%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Mississippi+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-existentialamerica-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-existentialamerica_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cotkin, George (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MJS3SMamIxIC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=ralph+ellison+existential&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw&amp;ved=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;q=ralph%20ellison%20existential&amp;f=false"><i>Existential American</i></a>. JHU Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=George&amp;rft.aulast=Cotkin&amp;rft.btitle=Existential+American&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMJS3SMamIxIC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3Dralph%2Bellison%2Bexistential%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw%26ved%3D0CDIQ6AEwAg%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dralph%2520ellison%2520existential%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=JHU+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-readinglearning-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-readinglearning_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Thomas, Paul Lee (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XQ2Giri4RegC&amp;pg=PA18&amp;dq=ralph+ellison+existential&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw&amp;ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&amp;q=ralph%20ellison%20existential&amp;f=false"><i>Reading, Learning, Teach Ralph Ellison</i></a>. Peter Lang<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul+Lee&amp;rft.aulast=Thomas&amp;rft.btitle=Reading%2C+Learning%2C+Teach+Ralph+Ellison&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXQ2Giri4RegC%26pg%3DPA18%26dq%3Dralph%2Bellison%2Bexistential%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw%26ved%3D0CEIQ6AEwBQ%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dralph%2520ellison%2520existential%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=Peter+Lang&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ellisongenius-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ellisongenius_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jackson, Lawrence Patrick (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCEV37_oA2AC&amp;pg=PA339&amp;dq=ralph+ellison+existential&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw&amp;ved=0CE4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&amp;q=ralph%20ellison%20existential&amp;f=false"><i>Ralph Ellison: Emergence of Genius</i></a>. University of Georgia Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Lawrence+Patrick&amp;rft.aulast=Jackson&amp;rft.btitle=Ralph+Ellison%3A+Emergence+of+Genius&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNCEV37_oA2AC%26pg%3DPA339%26dq%3Dralph%2Bellison%2Bexistential%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D_IcTVe-mF4qzogTM2IHwDw%26ved%3D0CE4Q6AEwBw%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dralph%2520ellison%2520existential%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Gurnow, Michael (2008-10-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006180224/http://www.horrorreview.com/essay/eglovecraft12008.html">"Zarathustra . . . Cthulhu . Meursault: Existential Futility in H.P. Lovecraft’s ‘The Call of Cthulhu’"</a>. <i>The Horror Review</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.horrorreview.com/essay/eglovecraft12008.html">the original</a> on October 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Zarathustra+.+.+.+Cthulhu+.+Meursault%3A++Existential+Futility+in+H.P.+Lovecraft%99s+%98The+Call+of+Cthulhu%99&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.aulast=Gurnow&amp;rft.date=2008-10-15&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.horrorreview.com%2Fessay%2Feglovecraft12008.html&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Horror+Review&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Times</i>, 31 December 1964. Quoted in Knowlson, J., <i>Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett</i> (London: Bloomsbury, 1996), p 57</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cronin, A., <i>Samuel Beckett The Last Modernist</i> (London: Flamingo, 1997), p 391</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Chrono-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chrono_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Michael H. Hutchins (14 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sondheimguide.com/Stoppard/chronology.html">"A Tom Stoppard Bibliography: Chronology"</a>. <i>The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=A+Tom+Stoppard+Bibliography%3A+Chronology&amp;rft.au=Michael+H.+Hutchins&amp;rft.date=2006-08-14&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sondheimguide.com%2FStoppard%2Fchronology.html&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Stephen+Sondheim+Reference+Guide&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Wren, Celia (12 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/11/AR2007121102254.html">"From Forum, an Earnest and Painstaking 'Antigone<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</span>"</a>. Washington Post<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=From+Forum%2C+an+Earnest+and+Painstaking+%27Antigone%27&amp;rft.aufirst=Celia&amp;rft.aulast=Wren&amp;rft.date=2007-12-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2007%2F12%2F11%2FAR2007121102254.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kernan, Alvin B. <i>The Modern American Theater: A Collection of Critical Essays</i>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>, 1967.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.logotherapie-international.eu/Frankl-Jung.English%20summary.pdf?2f569316a8c0d70a23e25e57788725a0=877b85765d9546f605211252412792ec">Logotherapie-international.eu</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart, Jon. <i>Kierkegaard and Existentialism</i>. p.38</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flynn, Thomas R. <i>Sartre, Foucault, and Historical Reason</i>, p. 323.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Yalom1980-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yalom1980_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom" title="Irvin D. Yalom">Yalom, Irvin D.</a> (1980). <i>Existential Psychotherapy</i>. New York: BasicBooks (Subsidiary of Perseus Books, L.L.C. p.&#160;17. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-02147-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-02147-6">0-465-02147-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Irvin+D.&amp;rft.aulast=Yalom&amp;rft.btitle=Existential+Psychotherapy&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-465-02147-6&amp;rft.pages=17&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=BasicBooks+%28Subsidiary+of+Perseus+Books%2C+L.L.C.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> Note: The copyright year has not changed, but the book remains in print.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann, Walter Arnold, From Shakespeare To Existentialism (Princeton University Press 1979), p.xvi</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Carnap.2C_Rudolf_1932_pp.219-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carnap.2C_Rudolf_1932_pp.219_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnap, Rudolf, <i>Uberwindung der Metaphysik durch logische Analyse der Sprache</i> [<i>Overcoming Metaphysics by the Logical Analysis of Speech</i>], Erkenntnis (1932), pp.219–241. Carnap's critique of Heidegger's "What is Metaphysics".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin, Wilson, <i>The Angry Years</i> (2007), p.214</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Marcuse1972-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marcuse1972_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcuse, Herbert. "Sartre's Existentialism". Printed in <i>Studies in Critical Philosophy</i>. Translated by Joris De Bres. London: NLB, 1972. p. 161</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism", in <i>Basic Writings: Nine Key Essays, plus the Introduction to</i> Being and Time , trans. David Farrell Krell (London, Routledge; 1978), 208. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kVc9AAAAIAAJ&amp;lpg=PA208&amp;ots=Wd-UQTTzCG&amp;dq=But%20the%20reversal%20of%20a%20metaphysical%20statement%20remains%20a%20metaphysical%20statement.%20With%20it%2C%20he%20stays%20with%20metaphysics%2C%20in%20oblivion%20of%20the%20truth%20of%20Being.&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q=But%20the%20reversal%20of%20a%20metaphysical%20statement%20remains%20a%20metaphysical%20statement.%20With%20it,%20he%20stays%20with%20metaphysics,%20in%20oblivion%20of%20the%20truth%20of%20Being.&amp;f=false">Google Books</a></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book">Razavi, Mehdi Amin (1997). <i>Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-0412-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-0412-4">0-7007-0412-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Mehdi+Amin&amp;rft.aulast=Razavi&amp;rft.btitle=Suhrawardi+and+the+School+of+Illumination&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7007-0412-4&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Albert Camus Lyrical and Critical essays. Edited by Philip Thody (interviev with Jeanie Delpech, in Les Nouvelles litteraires, November 15, 1945). pg 345</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation book">Appignanesi, Richard; <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Zarate" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscar Zarate">Oscar Zarate</a> (2001). <i>Introducing Existentialism</i>. Cambridge, UK: Icon. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84046-266-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-84046-266-3">1-84046-266-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Appignanesi&amp;rft.au=Oscar+Zarate&amp;rft.btitle=Introducing+Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=1-84046-266-3&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&amp;rft.pub=Icon&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Appignanesi, Richard (2006). <i>Introducing Existentialism</i> (3rd ed.). Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books (UK), Totem Books (USA). <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84046-717-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-84046-717-7">1-84046-717-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Appignanesi&amp;rft.btitle=Introducing+Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=1-84046-717-7&amp;rft.place=Thriplow%2C+Cambridge&amp;rft.pub=Icon+Books+%28UK%29%2C+Totem+Books+%28USA%29&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Cooper, David E. (1999). <i>Existentialism: A Reconstruction</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21322-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21322-8">0-631-21322-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=David+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Cooper&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism%3A+A+Reconstruction&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-631-21322-8&amp;rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Deurzen, Emmy van (2010). <i>Everyday Mysteries: a Handbook of Existential Psychotherapy</i> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37643-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37643-3">978-0-415-37643-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Emmy+van&amp;rft.aulast=Deurzen&amp;rft.btitle=Everyday+Mysteries%3A+a+Handbook+of+Existential+Psychotherapy&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-37643-3&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Fallico, Arthuro B. (1962). <i>Art &amp; Existentialism</i>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1855). <i>Attack Upon Christendom</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=Attack+Upon+Christendom&amp;rft.date=1855&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1843). <i>The Concept of Anxiety</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Anxiety&amp;rft.date=1843&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1846). <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=Concluding+Unscientific+Postscript&amp;rft.date=1846&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1843). <i>Either/Or</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=Either%2FOr&amp;rft.date=1843&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1843). <i>Fear and Trembling</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=Fear+and+Trembling&amp;rft.date=1843&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1849). <i>The Sickness Unto Death</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=The+Sickness+Unto+Death&amp;rft.date=1849&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1847). <i>Works of Love</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&amp;rft.aulast=Kierkegaard&amp;rft.btitle=Works+of+Love&amp;rft.date=1847&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Luper, Steven (ed.) (2000). <i>Existing: An Introduction to Existential Thought</i>. Mountain View, California: Mayfield. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7674-0587-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7674-0587-0">0-7674-0587-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.aulast=Luper&amp;rft.btitle=Existing%3A+An+Introduction+to+Existential+Thought&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7674-0587-0&amp;rft.place=Mountain+View%2C+California&amp;rft.pub=Mayfield&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Marino, Gordon (ed.) (2004). <i>Basic Writings of Existentialism</i>. New York: Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-75989-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-75989-1">0-375-75989-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Gordon+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.aulast=Marino&amp;rft.btitle=Basic+Writings+of+Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-375-75989-1&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Modern+Library&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). <i>Phenomenology of Perception</i> [<i>Colin Smith</i>]. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.aulast=Merleau-Ponty&amp;rft.btitle=Phenomenology+of+Perception&amp;rft.date=1962&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Seraphim_Rose" title="Seraphim Rose">Rose, Eugene (Fr. Seraphim)</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/nihilism.html"><i>Nihilism: The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age</i></a>. Saint Herman Press (1 September 1994). <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938635-15-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-938635-15-8">0-938635-15-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Eugene+%28Fr.+Seraphim%29&amp;rft.aulast=Rose&amp;rft.btitle=Nihilism%3A+The+Root+of+the+Revolution+of+the+Modern+Age&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fcu%2Faugustine%2Farch%2Fnihilism.html&amp;rft.isbn=0-938635-15-8&amp;rft.pub=Saint+Herman+Press+%281+September+1994%29&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Sartre, Jean-Paul (1943). <i>Being and Nothingness</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&amp;rft.aulast=Sartre&amp;rft.btitle=Being+and+Nothingness&amp;rft.date=1943&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Sartre, Jean-Paul (1945). <i>Existentialism and Humanism</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&amp;rft.aulast=Sartre&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism+and+Humanism&amp;rft.date=1945&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Stewart, Jon (ed.) (2011). <i>Kierkegaard and Existentialism</i>. Farnham, England: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-2641-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-2641-7">978-1-4094-2641-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Jon+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.aulast=Stewart&amp;rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+and+Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4094-2641-7&amp;rft.place=Farnham%2C+England&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" title="Robert C. Solomon">Solomon, Robert C. (ed.)</a> (2005). <i>Existentialism</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517463-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-517463-1">0-19-517463-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+C.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.aulast=Solomon&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-517463-1&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Wartenberg, Thomas E. <i>Existentialism: A Beginner's Guide</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Wartenberg&amp;rft.btitle=Existentialism%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Continental_Philosophy/Existentialism/">Existentialism</a> at <a href="/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/existent">"Existentialism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Existentialism&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fexistent&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li class="mw-empty-li"></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547h8">Existentialism</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)" class="mw-redirect" title="In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p00547h8/In_Our_Time_Existentialism">listen now</a>)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friesian.com/existent.htm">Friesian interpretation of Existentialism</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Crowell, Steven. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism">"Existentialism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExistentialism&amp;rft.atitle=Existentialism&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft.aulast=Crowell&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fexistentialism&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm">"Existentialism is a Humanism", a lecture given by Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/"><i>The Existential Primer</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publish.uwo.ca/~dmann/waking_essay.htm">Buddhists, Existentialists and Situationists: Waking up in Waking Life</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Journals_and_articles">Journals and articles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Journals and articles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stirrings-still.org">Stirrings Still</a>: The International Journal of Existential Literature</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.existentialanalysis.co.uk">Existential Analysis</a> published by The Society for Existential Analysis</li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Existentialism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Existentialism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
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<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ffaaaa;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophers" title="Category:Continental philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Giorgio Agamben</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Alain Badiou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Georges Bataille</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Maurice Blanchot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Cornelius Castoriadis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfus" title="Hubert Dreyfus">Hubert Dreyfus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Terry Eagleton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Roman Ingarden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Leszek Kołakowski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Laruelle" title="François Laruelle">François Laruelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Paul Ricœur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avital_Ronell" title="Avital Ronell">Avital Ronell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Peter Sloterdijk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Slavoj Žižek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles"><b>more...</b></a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Existentialism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Poststructuralism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ffaaaa;">Concepts</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontic" title="Ontic">Ontic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Other" title="Other">Other</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles"><b>more...</b></a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophy" title="Category:Continental philosophy">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Continental" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Continental">Task force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Metaphysicians</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Existentialism</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics" title="Category:Metaphysics">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Metaphysics" title="Portal:Metaphysics">Portal</a></li>
</ul>
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</table>
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<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_religion&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Religious belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit" title="Spirit">Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Conceptions of God</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian view of God">Aristotelian view</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maltheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltheism">Maltheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Being" title="Supreme Being">Supreme Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="God in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kal%C4%81m_cosmological_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Kal?m cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_Universe" title="Fine-tuned Universe">Fine-tuning of the Universe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_Wager" title="Pascal's Wager">Pascal's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_a_proper_basis" title="Argument from a proper basis">Proper basis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 Gambit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Existentialism</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnostic_existentialism" title="Agnostic existentialism">Agnostic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language-game_(philosophy)" title="Language-game (philosophy)">Language-game</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />
of religion</a></div>
<br />
(by date active)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Ancient<br />
and<br />
Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Enlightenment</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />
1850</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />
1900</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W. K. Clifford</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />
postwar</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />
1990<br />
2010</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions" title="History of religions">History of religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_science_of_religion" title="Political science of religion">Political science of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
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</tr>
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<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><b><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></b></li>
<li><b><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></b></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Ethics of care</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Existentialist ethics</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<tr style="height:2px">
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering or Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">full index...</a></b></li>
</ul>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensialisme" title="Eksistensialisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existenzialismus" title="Existenzialismus – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%85%E1%88%8D%E1%8B%8D%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="ኅ???ት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="وجودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekzistensializm" title="Ekzistensializm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb"><a href="//azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B4%DA%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%82" title="واراولوشچولوق – تۆرکجه" lang="azb" hreflang="azb">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="অস?তিত?ববাদ – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBn-ch%C4%81i-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Chûn-ch?i-chú-gī – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экзі?т?нцы?лізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экзы?т?нцы?лізм – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Екзи?тенциализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzistencijalizam" title="Egzistencijalizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialisme" title="Existencialisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="//ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensyalismo" title="Eksistensyalismo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialismus" title="Existencialismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirfodaeth" title="Dirfodaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistentialisme" title="Eksistentialisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existenzphilosophie" title="Existenzphilosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistentsialism" title="Eksistentsialism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BE%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Υπα?ξισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialismo" title="Existencialismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekzistadismo" title="Ekzistadismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentzialismo" title="Existentzialismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="اگزیستانسیالیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialisme" title="Existentialisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiseachas" title="Eiseachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialismo" title="Existencialismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%98%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="存在主義 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EC%A1%B4%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="실존주? – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D6%84%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Էքզիստեն?իալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अस?तित?ववाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija_egzistencije" title="Filozofija egzistencije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensialisme" title="Eksistensialisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialismo" title="Existentialismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilvistarstefna" title="Tilvistarstefna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esistenzialismo" title="Esistenzialismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="?קזיסטנצי?ליז? – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88ksist%C3%A8nsialisme" title="Èksistènsialisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A6" title="ಅಸ?ತಿತ?ವವಾದ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ეგზისტენცი?ლიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экзи?тенциализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egz%C3%AEstansiyal%C3%AEzm" title="Egzîstansiyalîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экзи?тенциализм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exsistentialista" title="Exsistentialista – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistenci%C4%81lisms" title="Eksistenci?lisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzistencializmas" title="Egzistencializmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/zatsi%27o" title="zatsi'o – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzisztencializmus" title="Egzisztencializmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Егзи?тенцијализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="അസ?തിത?വവാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87" title="وجوديه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensialisme" title="Eksistensialisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экзи?т?нциализм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AB%E1%80%92" title="ဖြစ်?ည်မှုပဓာန?ါဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialisme" title="Existentialisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अस?तित?ववाद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9F%E5%AD%98%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="実存主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensialisme" title="Eksistensialisme – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensialisme" title="Eksistensialisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialisme" title="Existencialisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekzistensializm" title="Ekzistensializm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਹੋਂਦਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzistenshalizim" title="Egzistenshalizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzystencjalizm" title="Egzystencjalizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialismo" title="Existencialismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existen%C8%9Bialism" title="Existențialism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экзи?тенциализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="//sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esistentzialismu" title="Esistentzialismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencializmus" title="Existencializmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistencializem" title="Eksistencializem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ئێگزیستانسیالیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzistencijalizam" title="Egzistencijalizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzistencijalizam" title="Egzistencijalizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistentialismi" title="Eksistentialismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksistensiyalismo" title="Eksistensiyalismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இர?த?தலியல? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="ఎగ?జిస?టెన?షియలిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెల?గ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="อัตถิภาวนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varolu%C5%9F%C3%A7uluk" title="Varoluşçuluk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Екзи?тенціалізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="موجودیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_hi%E1%BB%87n_sinh" title="Chủ nghĩa hiện sinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng 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