
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" dir="ltr" class="client-nojs">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8"/>
<title>Ethics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</title>
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Ethics rootpage-Ethics skin-vector action-view">
		<div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main">
			<a id="top"></a>

							<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
						<div class="mw-indicators">
</div>
			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Ethics</h1>
									<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
									<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
								<div id="contentSub"></div>
												<div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump">
					Jump to:					<a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, 					<a href="#p-search">search</a>
				</div>
				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ethics (disambiguation)">Ethics (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">a series</a> on</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Philbar_3.png" class="image" title="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes"><img alt="Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png" width="220" height="151" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="151" /></a>
<div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;white-space:nowrap;border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers" title="Category:Philosophers">Philosophers</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aestheticians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_and_political_philosophers" title="List of social and political philosophers">Social and political philosophers</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical traditions">Traditions</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Philosophy">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">Periods</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_literature" title="Category:Philosophical literature">Literature</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics_literature" title="Category:Aesthetics literature">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology_literature" title="Category:Epistemology literature">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics_literature" title="Category:Ethics literature">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic_literature" title="Category:Logic literature">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics_literature" title="Category:Metaphysics literature">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_literature" title="Category:Political philosophy literature">Political philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Ethics</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Legal philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy-related_lists" title="Category:Philosophy-related lists">Lists</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em;font-size:105%;padding-bottom:0;">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">Philosopher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><span class="metadata"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" width="10" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_sidebar&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Ethics</b> or <b>moral philosophy</b> is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">conduct</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-1">[1]</a></sup> The term <i>ethics</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word ἠθικός <i>ethikos</i>, which is derived from the word ἦθος <i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habit</a>, "custom"). The branch of philosophy <a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">axiology</a> comprises the sub-branches of ethics and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, each concerned with <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">values</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></p>
<p>As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions "What is the best way for people to live?" and "What <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">actions</a> are right or wrong in particular circumstances?" In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality, by defining concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good and evil</a>, right and <a href="/wiki/Wrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrong">wrong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>. As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">moral psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">descriptive ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">value theory</a>.</p>
<p>Three major areas of study within ethics recognised today are:<sup id="cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-1">[1]</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a>, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth values</a> (if any) can be determined</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a>, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a>, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action<sup id="cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-1">[1]</a></sup></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Defining_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Defining ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Meta-ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Meta-ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Normative_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Normative ethics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Virtue_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Virtue ethics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Stoicism"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Stoicism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Contemporary_virtue_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary virtue ethics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Hedonism"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hedonism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Cyrenaic_hedonism"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cyrenaic hedonism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Epicureanism"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Epicureanism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#State_consequentialism"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">State consequentialism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Consequentialism.2FTeleology"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Consequentialism/Teleology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Utilitarianism"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Utilitarianism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Deontology"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Deontology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Pragmatic_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Pragmatic ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Role_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Role ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Anarchist_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3.8</span> <span class="toctext">Anarchist ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Postmodern_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">3.9</span> <span class="toctext">Postmodern ethics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Applied_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Applied ethics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Specific_questions"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Specific questions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Particular_fields_of_application"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Particular fields of application</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Bioethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bioethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Business_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Business ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Machine_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Machine ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Military_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Military ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Political_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Political ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Public_sector_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Public sector ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Publication_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Publication ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Relational_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Relational ethics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Moral_psychology"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Moral psychology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Evolutionary_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Evolutionary ethics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Descriptive_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Descriptive ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Defining_ethics">Defining ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Defining ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Rushworth_Kidder" title="Rushworth Kidder">Rushworth Kidder</a> states that "standard definitions of <i>ethics</i> have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty' ".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Richard William Paul and <a href="/wiki/Linda_Elder" title="Linda Elder">Linda Elder</a> define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Dictionary_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy">Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</a></i> states that the word ethics is "commonly used interchangeably with '<a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>'&#160;... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs and the law and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a></sup></p>
<p>The word "ethics" in English refers to several things.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to answer various kinds of ethical questions. As the English philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a> writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> And Williams describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question, "how one should live"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about ethical problems that is not particular to philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Ethics can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or habits.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> For example: "Joe has strange ethics."</p>
<p>The English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word <i>êthikos</i>, which means "relating to one's character." The Ancient Greek adjective <i>êthikos</i> is itself derived from another Greek word, the noun <i>êthos</i> meaning "character, disposition."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Meta-ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></div>
<p>Meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-12">[12]</a></sup> An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, "Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake?"—cannot be a meta-ethical question. A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, "Is it ever possible to have secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?" would be a meta-ethical question.</p>
<p>Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge. Meta-ethics is also important in <a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="George Edward Moore">G.E. Moore</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a></i> from 1903. In it he first wrote about what he called <i>the <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a></i>. Moore was seen to reject <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">naturalism</a> in ethics, in his <a href="/wiki/Open_Question_Argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Question Argument">Open Question Argument</a>. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics. Earlier, the Scottish <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> had put forward a similar view on the difference between <a href="/wiki/Is-ought_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Is-ought problem">facts and values</a>.</p>
<p>Studies of how we know in ethics divide into <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">cognitivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">non-cognitivism</a>; this is similar to the contrast between descriptivists and non-descriptivists. Non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false. We may for example be only expressing our emotional feelings about these things.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Cognitivism can then be seen as the claim that when we talk about right and wrong, we are talking about matters of fact.</p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> of ethics is about <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">value</a>-bearing things or properties, i.e. the kind of things or stuff referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology, since ethical propositions do not refer. This is known as an anti-realist position. Realists on the other hand must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Normative_ethics">Normative ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Normative ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></div>
<p>Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a> because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-12">[12]</a></sup> Normative ethics is also distinct from <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">descriptive ethics</a>, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Hence, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a>, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<p>Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions.</p>
<p>At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> and by the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>.</p>
<p>In 1971 <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i>, noteworthy in its pursuit of moral arguments and eschewing of meta-ethics. This publication set the trend for renewed interest in normative ethics.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Virtue_ethics">Virtue ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Virtue ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg/200px-Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg" width="200" height="300" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg/300px-Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg/400px-Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2540" data-file-height="3810" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates_BM_GR1973.03-27.16.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behavior, and is used to describe the ethics of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and other early Greek philosophers. <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (469–399&#160;BC) was one of the first <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind. In this view, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> bearing on human life was placed highest, while all other knowledge were secondary. <a href="/wiki/Self-knowledge_(psychology)" title="Self-knowledge (psychology)">Self-knowledge</a> was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions are the result of ignorance. If a criminal was truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While he correlated knowledge with <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>, he similarly equated virtue with <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">joy</a>. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:32–33</sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–323&#160;BC) posited an ethical system that may be termed "self-realizationism." In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with his nature and realizes his full potential, he will do good and be content. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a potential person. To become a "real" person, the child's inherent potential must be realized. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by the unrealized potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Aristotle said, "<a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> does nothing in vain." Therefore, it is imperative for people to act in accordance with their nature and develop their latent talents in order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, are merely means to the end. Self-realization, the awareness of one's nature and the development of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:33–35</sup></p>
<p>Aristotle asserted that man had three natures: vegetable (physical/metabolism), animal (emotional/appetite) and rational (mental/conceptual). Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care, emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges, and mental through human reason and developed potential. Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness and as uniquely human. <a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a> was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courage</a> is the moderate virtue between the extremes of <a href="/wiki/Cowardice" title="Cowardice">cowardice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recklessness_(psychology)" title="Recklessness (psychology)">recklessness</a>. Man should not simply live, but live well with conduct governed by moderate virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:35–37</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Stoicism">Stoicism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Stoicism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Epictetus.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Epictetus.jpg/200px-Epictetus.jpg" width="200" height="253" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Epictetus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Epictetus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="346" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Epictetus.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">Apatheia</a>, was of the highest <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">value</a>; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is in essence offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom. Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God (who initially gave what the person is as a person). Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:38–41</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_virtue_ethics">Contemporary virtue ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Contemporary virtue ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Modern virtue ethics was popularized during the late 20th century in large part as a response to <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>". Anscombe argues that consequentialist and deontological ethics are only feasible as universal theories if the two schools ground themselves in divine law. As a deeply devoted Christian herself, Anscombe proposed that either those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics, which does not necessitate universal laws as agents themselves are investigated for virtue or vice and held up to "universal standards," or that those who wish to be utilitarian or consequentialist ground their theories in religious conviction.<sup id="cite_ref-Vries_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vries-17">[17]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, who wrote the book <i><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a></i>, was a key contributor and proponent of modern virtue ethics, although MacIntyre supports a relativistic account of virtue based on <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" title="Norm (social)">cultural norms</a>, not objective standards.<sup id="cite_ref-Vries_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vries-17">[17]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, a contemporary virtue ethicist, objects to MacIntyre's relativism, among that of others, and responds to relativist objections to form an objective account in her work "Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> <i>Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century</i><sup id="cite_ref-ethics_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethics-19">[19]</a></sup> blended the Eastern virtue ethics and the Western virtue ethics, with some modifications to suit the 21st Century, and formed a part of contemporary virtue ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-ethics_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethics-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hedonism">Hedonism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Hedonism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></div>
<p>Hedonism posits that the principal ethic is maximizing <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> and minimizing <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">pain</a>. There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating <a href="/wiki/Self-gratification" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-gratification">self-gratification</a> regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:37</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Cyrenaic_hedonism">Cyrenaic hedonism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Cyrenaic hedonism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Founded by <a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a> of Cyrene, <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a> supported immediate gratification or pleasure. "Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die." Even fleeting desires should be indulged, for fear the opportunity should be forever lost. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit for immediate pleasure. Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:37</sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Epicureanism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></div>
<p>Epicurean ethics is a hedonist form of virtue ethics. <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> "presented a sustained argument that pleasure, correctly understood, will coincide with virtue".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> He rejected the extremism of the <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a>, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings. <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureans</a> observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future. To Epicurus the <i>summum bonum</i>, or greatest good, was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain. For example, eating one food too often will cause a person to lose taste for it. Eating too much food at once will lead to discomfort and ill-health. Pain and fear were to be avoided. Living was essentially good, barring pain and illness. Death was not to be feared. Fear was considered the source of most unhappiness. Conquering the fear of death would naturally lead to a happier life. Epicurus reasoned if there was an afterlife and immortality, the fear of death was irrational. If there was no life after death, then the person would not be alive to suffer, fear or worry; he would be non-existent in death. It is irrational to fret over circumstances that do not exist, such as one's state in death in the absence of an afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:37–38</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="State_consequentialism">State consequentialism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: State consequentialism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a>, also known as Mohist consequentialism,<sup id="cite_ref-readings_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-readings-21">[21]</a></sup> is an ethical theory that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the basic goods of a state.<sup id="cite_ref-readings_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-readings-21">[21]</a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> describes Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BC, as "a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Unlike utilitarianism, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are&#160;... order, material wealth, and increase in population".<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-23">[23]</a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>'s era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to <a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">basic needs</a> like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability.<sup id="cite_ref-Norden_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norden-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/David_S._Nivison" class="mw-redirect" title="David S. Nivison">David Shepherd Nivison</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Ancient_China" title="The Cambridge History of Ancient China">The Cambridge History of Ancient China</a></i>, writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth&#160;... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically."<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-23">[23]</a></sup> The Mohists believed that morality is based on "promoting the benefit of all under heaven and eliminating harm to all under heaven." In contrast to Bentham's views, state consequentialism is not utilitarian because it is not hedonistic or individualistic. The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweigh the importance of individual pleasure and pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-25">[25]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Consequentialism.2FTeleology">Consequentialism/Teleology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Consequentialism/Teleology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></div>
<p>Consequentialism refers to moral theories that hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action (or create a structure for judgment, see <a href="#Rule_consequentialism">rule consequentialism</a>). Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence. This view is often expressed as the <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorism</a> <i>"The ends justify the means"</i>.</p>
<p>The term "consequentialism" was coined by <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> in her essay "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>" in 1958, to describe what she saw as the central error of certain moral theories, such as those propounded by <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anscombe_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anscombe-26">[26]</a></sup> Since then, the term has become common in English-language ethical theory.</p>
<p>The defining feature of consequentialist moral theories is the weight given to the consequences in evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-27">[27]</a></sup> In consequentialist theories, the consequences of an action or rule generally outweigh other considerations. Apart from this basic outline, there is little else that can be unequivocally said about consequentialism as such. However, there are some questions that many consequentialist theories address:</p>
<ul>
<li>What sort of consequences count as good consequences?</li>
<li>Who is the primary beneficiary of moral action?</li>
<li>How are the consequences judged and who judges them?</li>
</ul>
<p>One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, a good action is one that results in an increase in a positive effect, and the best action is one that results in that effect for the greatest number. Closely related is <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonic</a> consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_outcome" title="Equality of outcome">material equality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Freedom_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom (political)">political liberty</a> instead of something like the more ephemeral "pleasure". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Whether a particular consequentialist theory focuses on a single good or many, conflicts and tensions between different good states of affairs are to be expected and must be adjudicated.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Utilitarianism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></div>
<div class="thumb tmulti tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:367px;max-width:367px">
<div class="tsingle" style="float:left;margin:1px;width:174px;max-width:174px">
<div class="thumbimage" style="height:234px;overflow:hidden"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/172px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" width="172" height="234" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/258px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/344px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="728" /></div>
<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></div>
</div>
<div class="tsingle" style="float:left;margin:1px;width:189px;max-width:189px">
<div class="thumbimage" style="height:234px;overflow:hidden"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/187px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg" width="187" height="235" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/281px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/374px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1600" /></div>
<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></div>
</div>
<div style="clear:left"></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the proper course of action is one that maximizes a positive effect, such as "happiness", "welfare", or the ability to live according to personal preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> are influential proponents of this school of thought. In <i>A Fragment on Government</i> Bentham says 'it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong' and describes this as a fundamental <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axiom</a>. In <i>An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</i> he talks of 'the principle of utility' but later prefers "the greatest happiness principle".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-John_Stuart_Mill_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Stuart_Mill-30">[30]</a></sup></p>
<p>Utilitarianism is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. This form of utilitarianism holds that what matters is the aggregate positive effect of everyone and not only of any one person. <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, in his exposition of utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures.<sup id="cite_ref-Mill_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mill-31">[31]</a></sup> Other noteworthy proponents of utilitarianism are neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Sam_Harris_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam Harris (author)">Sam Harris</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/The_Moral_Landscape" title="The Moral Landscape">The Moral Landscape</a>, and moral philosopher <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>, author of, amongst other works, <a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a>.</p>
<p>There are two types of utilitarianism, <a href="/wiki/Act_utilitarianism" title="Act utilitarianism">act utilitarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rule_utilitarianism" title="Rule utilitarianism">rule utilitarianism</a>. In act utilitarianism the principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about the best results (or the least amount of bad results). In rule utilitarianism the principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct (moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the consequences of a world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which promises were binding. Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking those rules.<sup id="cite_ref-Carnegie_Mellon_University_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carnegie_Mellon_University-32">[32]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Deontology">Deontology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Deontology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></div>
<p>Deontological ethics or deontology (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δέον</span>, <i>deon</i>, "obligation, duty"; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">-λογία</span>, <i><a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logia</a></i>) is an approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining <a href="/wiki/Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts">acts</a>, or the rules and duties that the person doing the act strove to fulfill.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-33">[33]</a></sup> This is in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>, in which rightness is based on the consequences of an act, and not the act by itself. In deontology, an act may be considered right even if the act produces a bad consequence,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> if it follows the <i>rule</i> that "one should do unto others as they would have done unto them",<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> and even if the person who does the act lacks virtue and had a bad intention in doing the act.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to deontology, we have a <i>duty</i> to act in a way that does those things that are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inherently&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Inherently (page does not exist)">inherently</a> good as acts ("truth-telling" for example), or follow an objectively obligatory rule (as in <a href="/wiki/Rule_utilitarianism" title="Rule utilitarianism">rule utilitarianism</a>). For deontologists, the ends or consequences of our actions are not important in and of themselves, and our intentions are not important in and of themselves.</p>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" width="170" height="245" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/255px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/340px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> First, Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people must act from duty (<i>deon</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Second, Kant argued that it was not the consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives (maxime) of the person who carries out the action.</p>
<p>Kant's argument that to act in the morally right way, one must act from duty, begins with an argument that the highest good must be both good in itself, and good without qualification.<sup id="cite_ref-transition_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transition-39">[39]</a></sup> Something is 'good in itself' when it is <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsically good</a>, and 'good without qualification' when the addition of that thing never makes a situation ethically worse. Kant then argues that those things that are usually thought to be good, such as <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, perseverance and <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a>, fail to be either intrinsically good or good without qualification. Pleasure, for example, appears to not be good without qualification, because when people take pleasure in watching someone suffer, they make the situation ethically worse. He concludes that there is only one thing that is truly good:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Nothing in the world—indeed nothing even beyond the world—can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualification except a <i>good will</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-transition_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transition-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<div style="clear:both;"></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pragmatic_ethics">Pragmatic ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Pragmatic ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></div>
<p>Associated with the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, pragmatic ethics holds that moral correctness evolves similarly to scientific knowledge: socially over the course of many lifetimes. Thus, we should prioritize social reform over attempts to account for consequences, individual virtue or duty (although these may be worthwhile attempts, provided social reform is provided for).<sup id="cite_ref-Lafollette2000_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lafollette2000-40">[40]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Role_ethics">Role ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Role ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></div>
<p>Role ethics is an ethical theory based on <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a> roles.<sup id="cite_ref-Ames_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ames-41">[41]</a></sup> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, role ethics is not individualistic. Morality is derived from a person's relationship with their community.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraser_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraser-42">[42]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> ethics is an example of role ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-Ames_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ames-41">[41]</a></sup> Confucian roles center around the concept of <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a> or <i>xiao</i>, a respect for family members.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-43">[43]</a></sup> According to Roger Ames and Henry Rosemont, "Confucian normativity is defined by living one's family roles to maximum effect." Morality is determined through a person's fulfillment of a role, such as that of a parent or a child. Confucian roles are not <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rational</a>, and originate through the <i>xin</i>, or human emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraser_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraser-42">[42]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Anarchist_ethics">Anarchist ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Anarchist ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchist</a> ethics is an ethical theory based on the studies of anarchist thinkers. The biggest contributor to the anarchist ethics is the Russian zoologist, geographer, economist and political activist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>. The anarchist ethics is a big and vague field which can depend upon different historical situations and different anarchist thinkers, but as Peter Kropotkin explains, "any “bourgeois? or “proletarian? ethics rests, after all, on the common basis, on the common ethnological foundation, which at times exerts a very strong inﬂuence on the principles of the class or group morality." Still, most of the anarchist ethics schools are based on three fundamental ideas, which are: "solidarity, equality and justice". Kropotkin argues that Ethics is evolutionary and is inherited as a sort of a social instinct through History, and by so, he rejects any religious and transcendental explanation of ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> Kropotkin suggests that the principle of equality which lies at the basis of anarchism is the same as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden rule">Golden rule</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>This principle of treating others as one wishes to be treated oneself, what is it but the very same principle as equality, the fundamental principle of anarchism? And how can any one manage to believe himself an anarchist unless he practices it? We do not wish to be ruled. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves wish to rule nobody? We do not wish to be deceived, we wish always to be told nothing but the truth. And by this very fact, do we not de- clare that we ourselves do not wish to deceive anybody, that we promise to always tell the truth, nothing but the truth, the whole truth? We do not wish to have the fruits of our labor stolen from us. And by that very fact, do we not declare that we respect the fruits of others' labor? By what right indeed can we demand that we should be treated in one fashion, reserving it to ourselves to treat others in a fashion entirely different? Our sense of equality revolts at such an idea.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Postmodern_ethics">Postmodern ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Postmodern ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></div>
<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content" role="presentation">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image">
<div style="width:52px"><a href="/wiki/File:Ambox_question.svg" class="image"><img alt="Ambox question.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/40px-Ambox_question.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/60px-Ambox_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/80px-Ambox_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></a></div>
</td>
<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This article or section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material_that_advances_a_position" title="Wikipedia:No original research">previously unpublished synthesis</a> of published material that conveys ideas not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">attributable</a> to the original sources.</b> <span class="hide-when-compact">Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Ethics#.23" title="Talk:Ethics">talk page</a>.</span> <small><i>(July 2009)</i></small> <small class="hide-when-compact"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The 20th century saw a remarkable expansion and evolution of critical theory, following on earlier <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist Theory</a> efforts to locate individuals within larger structural frameworks of ideology and action.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a> challenged the possibilities of individual agency and the coherence of the notion of the 'individual' itself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As critical theory developed in the later 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a> sought to problematize human relationships to knowledge and 'objective' reality. <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> argued that access to meaning and the 'real' was always deferred, and sought to demonstrate via recourse to the linguistic realm that "there is nothing outside context" ("<i>il n'y a pas de hors-texte</i>" is often mistranslated as "there is nothing outside the text"); at the same time, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a> theorised that signs and symbols or simulacra mask reality (and eventually the absence of reality itself), particularly in the consumer world.</p>
<p>Post-structuralism and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> argue that ethics must study the complex and relational conditions of actions. A simple alignment of ideas of right and particular acts is not possible. There will always be an ethical remainder that cannot be taken into account or often even recognized. Such theorists find narrative (or, following Nietzsche and Foucault, <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a>) to be a helpful tool for understanding ethics because narrative is always about particular lived experiences in all their complexity rather than the assignment of an idea or norm to separate and individuated actions.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a> says <a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a> is best described as Modernity without illusion, the illusion being the belief that humanity can be repaired by some ethic principle. Postmodernity can be seen in this light as accepting the messy nature of humanity as unchangeable.</p>
<p>David Couzens Hoy states that <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a>'s writings on the face of the Other and <a href="/wiki/Derrida" class="mw-redirect" title="Derrida">Derrida</a>'s meditations on the relevance of death to ethics are signs of the "ethical turn" in Continental philosophy that occurred in the 1980s and 1990s. Hoy describes post-critique ethics as the "obligations that present themselves as necessarily to be fulfilled but are neither forced on one or are enforceable" (2004, p.&#160;103).</p>
<p>Hoy's post-critique model uses the term <i>ethical resistance</i>. Examples of this would be an individual's resistance to consumerism in a retreat to a simpler but perhaps harder lifestyle, or an individual's resistance to a terminal illness. Hoy describes Levinas's account as "not the attempt to use power against itself, or to mobilize sectors of the population to exert their political power; the ethical resistance is instead the resistance of the powerless"(2004, p.&#160;8).</p>
<p>Hoy concludes that</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>The ethical resistance of the powerless others to our capacity to exert power over them is therefore what imposes unenforceable obligations on us. The obligations are unenforceable precisely because of the other's lack of power. That actions are at once obligatory and at the same time unenforceable is what put them in the category of the ethical. Obligations that were enforced would, by the virtue of the force behind them, not be freely undertaken and would not be in the realm of the ethical. (2004, p.184)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In present-day terms the powerless may include the unborn, the terminally sick, the aged, the insane, and non-human animals. It is in these areas that ethical action in Hoy's sense will apply. Until legislation or the state apparatus enforces a moral order that addresses the causes of resistance these issues will remain in the ethical realm. For example, should animal experimentation become illegal in a society, it will no longer be an ethical issue on Hoy's definition. Likewise one hundred and fifty years ago, not having a black slave in America would have been an ethical choice. This later issue has been absorbed into the fabric of an enforceable social order and is therefore no longer an ethical issue in Hoy's sense.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Applied_ethics">Applied ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Applied ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></div>
<p>Applied ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations. The discipline has many specialized fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">engineering ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoethics" title="Geoethics">geoethics</a>, public service ethics and <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">business ethics</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Specific_questions">Specific questions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Specific questions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image">
<div style="width:52px"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" width="50" height="39" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div>
</td>
<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please help <a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <small><i>(May 2009)</i></small> <small class="hide-when-compact"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Applied ethics is used in some aspects of determining public policy, as well as by individuals facing difficult decisions. The sort of questions addressed by applied ethics include: "Is getting an abortion immoral?" "Is euthanasia immoral?" "Is affirmative action right or wrong?" "What are human rights, and how do we determine them?" "Do animals have rights as well?" and "Do individuals have the right of self determination?"<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>A more specific question could be: "If someone else can make better out of his/her life than I can, is it then moral to sacrifice myself for them if needed?" Without these questions there is no clear fulcrum on which to balance law, politics, and the practice of arbitration — in fact, no common assumptions of all participants—so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights balancing. But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy. For example, making ethical judgments regarding questions such as, "Is lying always wrong?" and, "If not, when is it permissible?" is prior to any etiquette.</p>
<p>People in-general are more comfortable with dichotomies (two opposites). However, in ethics the issues are most often multifaceted and the best proposed actions address many different areas concurrently. In ethical decisions the answer is almost never a "yes or no", "right or wrong" statement. Many buttons are pushed so that the overall condition is improved and not to the benefit of any particular faction.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Particular_fields_of_application">Particular fields of application</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Particular fields of application">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Bioethics">Bioethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Bioethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></div>
<p>Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among <a href="/wiki/Life_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Life sciences">life sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. It also includes the study of the more commonplace questions of values (<a href="/wiki/Primary_care_ethics" title="Primary care ethics">"the ethics of the ordinary"</a>) that arise in primary care and other branches of medicine.</p>
<p>Bioethics also needs to address emerging biotechnologies that affect basic biology and future humans. These developments include <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">cloning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genetic engineering">human genetic engineering</a>, astroethics and life in space,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA, RNA and proteins,e.g.- "three parent baby,where baby is born from genetically modified embryos, would have DNA from a mother, a father and from a female donor.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Correspondingly, new bioethics also need to address life at its core. For example, <a href="/wiki/Biotic_ethics" title="Biotic ethics">biotic ethics</a> value organic gene/protein life itself and seek to propagate it.<sup id="cite_ref-Bioethics_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bioethics-48">[48]</a></sup> With such life-centered principles, ethics may secure a cosmological future for life.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Business_ethics">Business ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Business ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></div>
<p>Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">professional ethics</a> that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment, including fields like <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a>. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.</p>
<p>Business ethics has both <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">normative</a> and descriptive dimensions. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporations promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Adam Smith said, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Machine_ethics">Machine ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Machine ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine ethics</a></div>
<p>In <i>Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong</i>, Wendell Wallach and Colin Allen conclude that issues in <a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">machine ethics</a> will likely drive advancement in understanding of human ethics by forcing us to address gaps in modern normative theory and by providing a platform for experimental investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallach2008_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallach2008-53">[53]</a></sup> The effort to actually program a machine or artificial agent to behave as though instilled with a sense of ethics requires new specificity in our normative theories, especially regarding aspects customarily considered common-sense. For example, machines, unlike humans, can support a wide selection of <a href="/wiki/List_of_machine_learning_algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of machine learning algorithms">learning algorithms</a>, and controversy has arisen over the relative ethical merits of these options. This may reopen classic debates of normative ethics framed in new (highly technical) terms.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Military_ethics">Military ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Military ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Principles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Principles">Nuremberg Principles</a></div>
<p>Military ethics are concerned with questions regarding the application of force and the ethos of the soldier and are often understood as applied professional ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a> is generally seen to set the background terms of military ethics. However individual countries and traditions have different fields of attention.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup></p>
<p>Military ethics involves multiple subareas, including the following among others:</p>
<ol>
<li>what, if any, should be the laws of war</li>
<li>justification for the initiation of military force</li>
<li>decisions about who may be targeted in warfare</li>
<li>decisions on choice of weaponry, and what collateral effects such weaponry may have</li>
<li>standards for handling military prisoners</li>
<li>methods of dealing with violations of the laws of war.</li>
</ol>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_ethics">Political ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Political ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></div>
<p>Political ethics (also known as political morality or public ethics) is the practice of making moral judgements about political action and political agents.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_sector_ethics">Public sector ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Public sector ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_sector_ethics" title="Public sector ethics">Public sector ethics</a></div>
<p>Public sector ethics is a set of principles that guide public officials in their service to their constituents, including their decision-making on behalf of their constituents. Fundamental to the concept of public sector ethics is the notion that decisions and actions are based on what best serves the public's interests, as opposed to the official's personal interests (including financial interests) or self-serving political interests.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Publication_ethics">Publication ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Publication ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Publication ethics is the set of principles that guide the writing and publishing process for all professional publications. In order to follow the set of principles, authors should verify that the publication does not contain <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">publication bias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Publication_ethics_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publication_ethics-58">[58]</a></sup> As a way to avoid misconduct in research these principles can also be applied to experiments which are referenced or analyzed in publications by ensuring the data is recorded, honestly and accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<p>Plagiarism is the failure to give credit to another author’s work or ideas, when it is used in the publication.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> It is the obligation of the editor of the journal to ensure the article does not contain any plagiarism before it is published.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> If a publication which has already been published is proven to contain plagiarism, then the editor of the journal can proceed to have the article retracted.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup></p>
<p>Publication bias occurs when the publication is one-sided or "<a href="/wiki/Prejudiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Prejudiced">prejudiced</a> against results".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> In best practice, an author should try to include information from all parties involved, or affected by the topic. If an author is prejudiced against certain results, than it can "lead to erroneous conclusions being drawn.?<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup></p>
<p>Misconduct in research can occur when information from an experiment is falsely recorded or altered.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu-65">[65]</a></sup> Falsely recorded information occurs when the researcher "fakes" information or data, which was not used when conducting the actual experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu-65">[65]</a></sup> By faking the data, the researcher can alter the results from the experiment to better fit the hypothesis they originally predicted. When conducting medical research, it is important to honor the healthcare rights of a patient by protecting their <a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">anonymity</a> in the publication.<sup id="cite_ref-Publication_ethics_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publication_ethics-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Relational_ethics">Relational ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Relational ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Relational ethics are related to an <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">ethics of care</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GILLIGAN2009_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GILLIGAN2009-66">[66]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:62–63</sup> They are used in qualitative research, especially ethnography and autoethnography. Researchers who employ relational ethics value and respect the connection between themselves and the people they study, and "between researchers and the communities in which they live and work" (Ellis, 2007, p.&#160;4).<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> Relational ethics also help researchers understand difficult issues such as conducting research on intimate others that have died and developing friendships with their participants.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> Relational ethics in close personal relationships form a central concept of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_B%C3%B6sz%C3%B6rm%C3%A9nyi-Nagy#Contextual_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan Böszörményi-Nagy">contextual therapy</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Moral_psychology">Moral psychology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: Moral psychology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></div>
<p><b>Moral psychology</b> is a field of study that began as an issue in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and that is now properly considered part of the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. Some use the term "moral psychology" relatively narrowly to refer to the study of <a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">moral development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> However, others tend to use the term more broadly to include any topics at the intersection of ethics and psychology (and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Such topics are ones that involve the mind and are relevant to moral issues. Some of the main topics of the field are <a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">moral responsibility</a>, moral development, <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a> (especially as related to <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>), <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moral_luck" title="Moral luck">moral luck</a>, and moral disagreement.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Evolutionary_ethics">Evolutionary ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Evolutionary ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></div>
<p>Evolutionary ethics concerns approaches to ethics (morality) based on the role of evolution in shaping human psychology and behavior. Such approaches may be based in scientific fields such as <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</a>, with a focus on understanding and explaining observed ethical preferences and choices.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Descriptive_ethics">Descriptive ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Descriptive ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></div>
<p>Descriptive ethics is on the less philosophical end of the spectrum, since it seeks to gather particular information about how people live and draw general conclusions based on observed patterns. Abstract and theoretical questions that are more clearly philosophical—such as, "Is ethical knowledge possible?"—are not central to descriptive ethics. Descriptive ethics offers a <a href="/wiki/Value-neutral" class="mw-redirect" title="Value-neutral">value-free</a> approach to ethics, which defines it as a social science rather than <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">a humanity</a>. Its examination of ethics doesn't start with a preconceived theory, but rather investigates <a href="/wiki/Revealed_preference" title="Revealed preference">observations of actual choices</a> made by moral agents in practice. Some philosophers rely on descriptive ethics and choices made and unchallenged by a <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> or <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> to derive categories, which typically vary by context. This can lead to <a href="/wiki/Situational_ethics" title="Situational ethics">situational ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Situated_ethics" title="Situated ethics">situated ethics</a>. These philosophers often view <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">etiquette</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a> as more fundamental, percolating "bottom up" to imply the existence of, rather than explicitly prescribe, theories of value or of conduct. The study of descriptive ethics may include examinations of the following:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">Ethical codes</a> applied by various groups. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics– and a personal <a href="/wiki/Moral_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral core">moral core</a> developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices.</li>
<li>Informal theories of etiquette that tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e., where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong? One notable advocate of this view is <a href="/wiki/Judith_Martin" title="Judith Martin">Judith Martin</a> ("Miss Manners"). According to this view, ethics is more a summary of <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> social decisions.</li>
<li>Practices in arbitration and <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, e.g., the claim that ethics itself is a matter of balancing "right versus right," i.e., putting priorities on two things that are both right, but that must be traded off carefully in each situation.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revealed_preference" title="Revealed preference">Observed choices</a> made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who <a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">vote</a>, buy, and decide what is worth valuing. This is a major concern of sociology, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_ethics" title="Contemporary ethics">Contemporary ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_movement" title="Ethical movement">Ethical movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics paper">Ethics paper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index of ethics articles</a> <i>(alphabetical list of ethics-related articles)</i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ethics" title="Outline of ethics">Outline of ethics</a> <i>(list of ethics-related articles, arranged by sub-topic)</i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_morality" title="Science of morality">Science of morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-iep.utm.edu-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iep.utm.edu_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/">"Ethics"</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Unabridged_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Random House Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/axiology">Entry on Axiology.</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kidder, Rushworth (2003). <i>How Good People Make Tough Choices: Resolving the Diliemmas of Ethical Living</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_Collins" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper Collins">Harper Collins</a>. p.&#160;63. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-17590-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-17590-2">0-688-17590-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Rushworth&amp;rft.aulast=Kidder&amp;rft.btitle=How+Good+People+Make+Tough+Choices%3A+Resolving+the+Diliemmas+of+Ethical+Living&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-688-17590-2&amp;rft.pages=63&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Harper+Collins&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Paul, Richard; Elder, Linda (2006). <i>The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning</i>. United States: Foundation for Critical Thinking Free Press. p.&#160;np. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-944583-17-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-944583-17-2">0-944583-17-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Elder%2C+Linda&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Paul&amp;rft.btitle=The+Miniature+Guide+to+Understanding+the+Foundations+of+Ethical+Reasoning&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-944583-17-2&amp;rft.pages=np&amp;rft.place=United+States&amp;rft.pub=Foundation+for+Critical+Thinking+Free+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Deigh in Robert Audi (ed), <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, 1995.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic">"Definition of ethic by Merriam Webster"</a>. Merriam Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 4,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.btitle=Definition+of+ethic+by+Merriam+Webster&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fethic&amp;rft.pub=Merriam+Webster&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Williams, Bernard. <i>Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy</i>. p.&#160;2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.btitle=Ethics+and+the+Limits+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Williams, Bernard. <i>Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy</i>. p.&#160;1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.btitle=Ethics+and+the+Limits+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">"Are We Professionals? A Critical Look at the Social Role of Bioethicists.". <i>Daedalus</i>. 1999. pp.&#160;253–274.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Are+We+Professionals%3F+A+Critical+Look+at+the+Social+Role+of+Bioethicists.&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Daedalus&amp;rft.pages=253-274&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">David Tanguay (January 24, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20140722174808/http://soulofwit.com/2014/01/24/Buddha-And-Socrates-Share-Common-Ground">"Buddha and Socrates share Common ground"</a>. Soul of Wit. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soulofwit.com/2014/01/24/Buddha-And-Socrates-Share-Common-Ground">the original</a> on July 22, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 22,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=David+Tanguay&amp;rft.btitle=Buddha+and+Socrates+share+Common+ground&amp;rft.date=2014-01-24&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsoulofwit.com%2F2014%2F01%2F24%2FBuddha-And-Socrates-Share-Common-Ground&amp;rft.pub=Soul+of+Wit&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><i>An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon</i>. 1889.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.btitle=An+Intermediate+Greek-English+Lexicon&amp;rft.date=1889&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-bbc-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20131028131348/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml">"What is ethics?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml">the original</a> on October 28, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 22,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+ethics%3F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fethics%2Fintroduction%2Fintro_1.shtml&amp;rft.pub=BBC&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/non-cogn/">http://www.iep.utm.edu/non-cogn/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, C. (2009). The Conditions of Moral Realism. The Journal of Philosophical Research, 34, 123-155.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Cavalier, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20131112114345/http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/II_preface.html">"Meta-ethics, Normative Ethics, and Applied Ethics"</a>. <i>Online Guide to Ethics and Moral Philosophy</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/II_preface.html">the original</a> on November 12, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Meta-ethics%2C+Normative+Ethics%2C+and+Applied+Ethics&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft.aulast=Cavalier&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaae.phil.cmu.edu%2FCavalier%2F80130%2Fpart2%2FII_preface.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Online+Guide+to+Ethics+and+Moral+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SahakianSahakian1966-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahakianSahakian1966_16-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">William S. Sahakian; Mabel Lewis Sahakian (1966). <i>Ideas of the Great Philosophers</i>. Barnes &amp; Noble. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-271-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-271-2">978-1-56619-271-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Mabel+Lewis+Sahakian&amp;rft.au=William+S.+Sahakian&amp;rft.btitle=Ideas+of+the+Great+Philosophers&amp;rft.date=1966&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56619-271-2&amp;rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Vries-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vries_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vries_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Professor Michiel S. S. De De Vries; Professor Pan Suk Kim (October 28, 2011). <i>Value and Virtue in Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. p.&#160;42. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-35709-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-35709-9">978-0-230-35709-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Professor+Michiel+S.+S.+De+De+Vries&amp;rft.au=Professor+Pan+Suk+Kim&amp;rft.btitle=Value+and+Virtue+in+Public+Administration%3A+A+Comparative+Perspective&amp;rft.date=2011-10-28&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-230-35709-9&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nussbaum, Martha (1987). <i>Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Martha&amp;rft.aulast=Nussbaum&amp;rft.btitle=Non-Relative+Virtues%3A+An+Aristotelian+Approach&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ethics-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethics_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethics_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Newton, Ph.D., <i>Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century</i> (2000). <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0967370574" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-9673705-7-4</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/#9">Ancient Ethical Theory</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-readings-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-readings_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-readings_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ivanhoe, P.J.; Van Norden, Bryan William (2005). <i>Readings in classical Chinese philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hackett Publishing">Hackett Publishing</a>. p.&#160;60. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-780-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-780-6">978-0-87220-780-6</a>. <q>he advocated a form of state consequentialism, which sought to maximize three basic goods: the wealth, order, and population of the state</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=P.J.&amp;rft.aulast=Ivanhoe&amp;rft.au=Van+Norden%2C+Bryan+William&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+classical+Chinese+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-87220-780-6&amp;rft.pages=60&amp;rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fraser, Chris, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/">Mohism</a>", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> , Edward N. Zalta.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Cambridge-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Ancient_China" title="The Cambridge History of Ancient China">The Cambridge History of Ancient China</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p.&#160;761. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8">978-0-521-47030-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.aulast=Loewe&amp;rft.au=Shaughnessy%2C+Edward+L.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&amp;rft.pages=761&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Norden-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Norden_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Van Norden, Bryan W. (2011). <i>Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hackett Publishing">Hackett Publishing</a>. p.&#160;52. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-468-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-468-0">978-1-60384-468-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Bryan+W.&amp;rft.aulast=Van+Norden&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Chinese+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-60384-468-0&amp;rft.pages=52&amp;rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Handbook-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jay L. Garfield; William Edelglass (June 9, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F06FKmKKIXwC&amp;pg=PA62"><i>The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;62. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532899-8">978-0-19-532899-8</a>. <q>The goods that serve as criteria of morality are collective or public, in contrast, for instance, to individual happiness or well-being</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Jay+L.+Garfield&amp;rft.au=William+Edelglass&amp;rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+World+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2011-06-09&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF06FKmKKIXwC%26pg%3DPA62&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-532899-8&amp;rft.pages=62&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Anscombe-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anscombe_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/G.E.M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G.E.M. Anscombe">Anscombe, G. E. M.</a> (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/cmt/mmp.html">"Modern Moral Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_(journal)" title="Philosophy (journal)">Philosophy</a></i> (1958) <b>33</b> (124): 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031819100037943">10.1017/S0031819100037943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Modern+Moral+Philosophy&amp;rft.au=Anscombe%2C+G.+E.+M.&amp;rft.date=1958&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophy.uncc.edu%2Fmleldrid%2Fcmt%2Fmmp.html&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0031819100037943&amp;rft.issue=124&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=1-19&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=33" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mackie-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mackie_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie, J. L.</a> (1990) [1977]. <i>Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong</i>. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-013558-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-013558-8">0-14-013558-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Mackie&amp;rft.btitle=Ethics%3A+Inventing+Right+and+Wrong&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-14-013558-8&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Penguin&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baqgini, Julian</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_S._Fosl" title="Peter S. Fosl">Fosl, Peter S.</a> (2007). <i>The Ethics Toolkit: A Compendium of Ethical Concepts and Methods</i>. Malden: Blackwell. pp.&#160;57–58. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3230-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3230-5">978-1-4051-3230-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Julian&amp;rft.au=Fosl%2C+Peter+S.&amp;rft.aulast=Baqgini&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethics+Toolkit%3A+A+Compendium+of+Ethical+Concepts+and+Methods&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3230-5&amp;rft.pages=57-58&amp;rft.place=Malden&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bentham, Jeremy (2001). <i>The Works of Jeremy Bentham: Published under the Superintendence of His Executor, John Bowring. Volume 1</i>. Adamant Media Corporation. p.&#160;18. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-6393-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-6393-7">978-1-4021-6393-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeremy&amp;rft.aulast=Bentham&amp;rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Jeremy+Bentham%3A+Published+under+the+Superintendence+of+His+Executor%2C+John+Bowring.+Volume+1&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4021-6393-7&amp;rft.pages=18&amp;rft.pub=Adamant+Media+Corporation&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-John_Stuart_Mill-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-John_Stuart_Mill_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11224/11224-h/11224-h.htm#CHAPTER_I">Mill, John Stuart, Utilitarianism (Project Gutenberg online edition)</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mill-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mill_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill, John Stuart</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utilitarianism.com/mill1.htm"><i>Utilitarianism</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875163-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875163-2">978-0-19-875163-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=John+Stuart&amp;rft.aulast=Mill&amp;rft.btitle=Utilitarianism&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utilitarianism.com%2Fmill1.htm&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-875163-2&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Carnegie_Mellon_University-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carnegie_Mellon_University_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html,">Department of Philosophy, CMU</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/">Stanford.edu</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olson, Robert G. 1967. 'Deontological Ethics'. In Paul Edwards (ed.) <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Collier_Macmillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Collier Macmillan">Collier Macmillan</a>: 343.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orend, Brian. 2000. <i>War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective</i>. West Waterloo, Ontario: <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier_University_Press" title="Wilfrid Laurier University Press">Wilfrid Laurier University Press</a>: 19.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelly, Eugene. 2006. <i>The Basics of Western Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>: 160.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. 1780. 'Preface'. In <i>The Metaphysical Elements of Ethics</i>. Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-transition-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-transition_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-transition_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel. 1785. 'First Section: Transition from the Common Rational Knowledge of Morals to the Philosophical', <a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Lafollette2000-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lafollette2000_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLafollette2000" class="citation book">Lafollette, Hugh, ed. (February 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hughlafollette.com/papers/pragmati.htm"><i>The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory</i></a>. Blackwell Philosophy Guides (1 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20119-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20119-9">978-0-631-20119-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Guide+to+Ethical+Theory&amp;rft.date=2000-02&amp;rft.edition=1&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hughlafollette.com%2Fpapers%2Fpragmati.htm&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-631-20119-9&amp;rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&amp;rft.series=Blackwell+Philosophy+Guides&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Ames-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ames_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ames_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Roger T. Ames (April 30, 2011). <i>Confucian Role Ethics: A Vocabulary</i>. University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3576-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3576-7">978-0-8248-3576-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Roger+T.+Ames&amp;rft.btitle=Confucian+Role+Ethics%3A+A+Vocabulary&amp;rft.date=2011-04-30&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3576-7&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Fraser-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fraser_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fraser_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Chris Fraser; Dan Robins; Timothy O'Leary (May 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2Qqf6ZXxh0C&amp;pg=PA35"><i>Ethics in Early China: An Anthology</i></a>. Hong Kong University Press. pp.&#160;17–35. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-8028-93-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-988-8028-93-1">978-988-8028-93-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Chris+Fraser&amp;rft.au=Dan+Robins&amp;rft.au=Timothy+O%27Leary&amp;rft.btitle=Ethics+in+Early+China%3A+An+Anthology&amp;rft.date=2011-05-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2Qqf6ZXxh0C%26pg%3DPA35&amp;rft.isbn=978-988-8028-93-1&amp;rft.pages=17-35&amp;rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Chang-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chang_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Wonsuk Chang; Leah Kalmanson (November 8, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_UC1mvUKaU8C&amp;pg=PA68"><i>Confucianism in Context: Classic Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, East Asia and Beyond</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" title="State University of New York Press">SUNY Press</a>. p.&#160;68. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3191-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3191-8">978-1-4384-3191-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Leah+Kalmanson&amp;rft.au=Wonsuk+Chang&amp;rft.btitle=Confucianism+in+Context%3A+Classic+Philosophy+and+Contemporary+Issues%2C+East+Asia+and+Beyond&amp;rft.date=2010-11-08&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_UC1mvUKaU8C%26pg%3DPA68&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3191-8&amp;rft.pages=68&amp;rft.pub=SUNY+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/petr-kropotkin-ethics-origin-and-development.pdf">"Ethics: Origin and Development" by Pëtr Kropotkin</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/AM/anarchist_moralityVI.html">"Anarchist morality", chapter VI, Pëtr Kropotkin</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20131023060209/http://www.astroethics.com/">"Astroethics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astroethics.com/">the original</a> on October 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 21,</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.btitle=Astroethics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astroethics.com%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Freemont, P. F.; Kitney, R. I. (2012). <i>Synthetic Biology</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84816-862-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84816-862-6">978-1-84816-862-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+F.&amp;rft.au=Kitney%2C+R.+I.&amp;rft.aulast=Freemont&amp;rft.btitle=Synthetic+Biology&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84816-862-6&amp;rft.place=New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Bioethics-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bioethics_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mautner, Michael N. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro-ecology.com/PDFLifeCenteredBioethics2009Paper.pdf">"Life-centered ethics, and the human future in space"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bioethics_(journal)" title="Bioethics (journal)">Bioethics</a></i> <b>23</b>: 433–440. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8519.2008.00688.x">10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00688.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19077128">19077128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Life-centered+ethics%2C+and+the+human+future+in+space&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+N.&amp;rft.aulast=Mautner&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astro-ecology.com%2FPDFLifeCenteredBioethics2009Paper.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8519.2008.00688.x&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19077128&amp;rft.jtitle=Bioethics&amp;rft.pages=433-440&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=23" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mautner, Michael N. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro-ecology.com/PDFSeedingtheUniverse2005Book.pdf"><i>Seeding the Universe with Life: Securing Our Cosmological Future</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. Washington D. C.: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Legacy_Books&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Legacy Books (page does not exist)">Legacy Books</a> (www.amazon.com). <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-476-00330-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-476-00330-X">0-476-00330-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+N.&amp;rft.aulast=Mautner&amp;rft.btitle=Seeding+the+Universe+with+Life%3A+Securing+Our+Cosmological+Future&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astro-ecology.com%2FPDFSeedingtheUniverse2005Book.pdf&amp;rft.isbn=0-476-00330-X&amp;rft.place=Washington+D.+C.&amp;rft.pub=Legacy+Books+%28www.amazon.com%29&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, A (1776/ 1952) An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, p. 55</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berle, A. A., &amp; Means, G. C. (1932). The Modern Corporation and Private Property. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. In this book, Berle and Means observe, "Corporations have ceased to be merely legal devices through which the private business transactions of individuals may be carried on. Though still much used for this purpose, the corporate form has acquired a much larger significance. The corporation has, in fact, become both a method of property tenure and a means of organizing economic life. Grown to tremendous proportions, there may be said to have evolved a 'corporate system'—as there once was a feudal system—which has attracted to itself a combination of attributes and powers, and has attained a degree of prominence entitling it to be dealt with as a major social institution.&#160;... We are examining this institution probably before it has attained its zenith. Spectacular as its rise has been, every indication seems to be that the system will move forward to proportions which stagger imagination today&#160;... They [management] have placed the community in a position to demand that the modern corporation serve not only the owners&#160;... but all society." p. 1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesParkeret_al.2005">Jones, Parker &amp; et al. 2005</a>, p.&#160;17</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Wallach2008-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wallach2008_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWallachAllen2008" class="citation book">Wallach, Wendell; Allen, Colin (November 2008). <i>Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong</i>. USA: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537404-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537404-9">978-0-19-537404-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Allen%2C+Colin&amp;rft.aufirst=Wendell&amp;rft.aulast=Wallach&amp;rft.btitle=Moral+Machines%3A+Teaching+Robots+Right+from+Wrong&amp;rft.date=2008-11&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-537404-9&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Cook, Martin L.; Syse, Henrik (2010). "What Should We Mean by 'Military Ethics'?". <i>Journal of Military Ethics</i> <b>9</b> (2). p.&#160;122.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=What+Should+We+Mean+by+%27Military+Ethics%27%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=Martin+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Cook&amp;rft.au=Syse%2C+Henrik&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Military+Ethics&amp;rft.pages=122&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=9" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Goffi" title="Emmanuel Goffi">Goffi, Emmanuel</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VpyjGdEsCA4C"><i>Les Armée Françaises Face à la Morale</i> [<i>The French Army Facing Morale</i>]</a> (in French). France: L'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2296542495" title="Special:BookSources/978-2296542495">978-2296542495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&amp;rft.aulast=Goffi&amp;rft.btitle=Les+Arm%C3%A9e+Fran%C3%A7aises+Face+%C3%A0+la+Morale&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVpyjGdEsCA4C&amp;rft.isbn=978-2296542495&amp;rft.place=France&amp;rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, Dennis F. "Political Ethics." <i>International Encyclopedia of Ethics</i>, ed. Hugh LaFollette (Blackwell Publishing, 2012).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, work of Institute for Local Government, at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ca-ilg.org/trust">www.ca-ilg.org/trust</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Publication_ethics-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Publication_ethics_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Publication_ethics_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Morton, Neil (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-9592.2009.03086.x/full">"Publication ethics"</a>. <i>Pediatric Anesthesia</i> <b>19</b> (10): 1011–1013. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-9592.2009.03086.x">10.1111/j.1460-9592.2009.03086.x</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved February 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Publication+ethics&amp;rft.aufirst=Neil&amp;rft.aulast=Morton&amp;rft.date=2009-10&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1460-9592.2009.03086.x%2Ffull&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1460-9592.2009.03086.x&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.jtitle=Pediatric+Anesthesia&amp;rft.pages=1011-1013&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=19" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wager, E; Fiack, S; Graf, C; Robinson, A; Rowlands, I (31 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jme.bmj.com/content/35/6/348.short">"Science journal editors’ views on publication ethics: results of an international survey"</a>. <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i> <b>35</b>: 348–353. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjme.2008.028324">10.1136/jme.2008.028324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Science+journal+editors%99+views+on+publication+ethics%3A+results+of+an+international+survey&amp;rft.au=Fiack%2C+S&amp;rft.aufirst=E&amp;rft.au=Graf%2C+C&amp;rft.aulast=Wager&amp;rft.au=Robinson%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Rowlands%2C+I&amp;rft.date=2009-03-31&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjme.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F35%2F6%2F348.short&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjme.2008.028324&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&amp;rft.pages=348-353&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=35" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Scollon, Ron (June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu:2048/stable/43102462?Search=yes&amp;resultItemClick=true&amp;searchText=plagiarism&amp;searchText=and&amp;searchText=publication&amp;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dplagiarism%2Band%2Bpublication%2B%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">"Plagiarism"</a>. <i>Journal of Linguistic Anthropology</i> <b>9</b>: 188–190. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1525%2Fjlin.1999.9.1-2.188">10.1525/jlin.1999.9.1-2.188</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved April 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Plagiarism&amp;rft.aufirst=Ron&amp;rft.aulast=Scollon&amp;rft.date=1999-06&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu%3A2048%2Fstable%2F43102462%3FSearch%3Dyes%26resultItemClick%3Dtrue%26searchText%3Dplagiarism%26searchText%3Dand%26searchText%3Dpublication%26searchUri%3D%252Faction%252FdoBasicSearch%253FQuery%253Dplagiarism%252Band%252Bpublication%252B%2526amp%253Bacc%253Don%2526amp%253Bwc%253Don%2526amp%253Bfc%253Doff%2526amp%253Bgroup%253Dnone%26seq%3D1%23page_scan_tab_contents&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fjlin.1999.9.1-2.188&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Linguistic+Anthropology&amp;rft.pages=188-190&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=9" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wager, Elizabeth; Williams, Peter (September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu:2048/stable/23034717?Search=yes&amp;resultItemClick=true&amp;searchText=retracting&amp;searchText=articles&amp;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dretracting%2Barticles%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">"Why and how do journals retract articles? An analysis of Medline retractions 1988—2008"</a>. <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i> <b>37</b> (9): 567–570. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjme.2010.040964">10.1136/jme.2010.040964</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved April 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Why+and+how+do+journals+retract+articles%3F+An+analysis+of+Medline+retractions+1988%942008&amp;rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&amp;rft.aulast=Wager&amp;rft.au=Williams%2C+Peter&amp;rft.date=2011-09&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu%3A2048%2Fstable%2F23034717%3FSearch%3Dyes%26resultItemClick%3Dtrue%26searchText%3Dretracting%26searchText%3Darticles%26searchUri%3D%252Faction%252FdoBasicSearch%253FQuery%253Dretracting%252Barticles%2526amp%253Bacc%253Don%2526amp%253Bwc%253Don%2526amp%253Bfc%253Doff%2526amp%253Bgroup%253Dnone%26seq%3D1%23page_scan_tab_contents&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjme.2010.040964&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&amp;rft.pages=567-570&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=37" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Sanjeev, Handa (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijdvl.com/article.asp?issn=0378-6323;year=2008;volume=74;issue=4;spage=301;epage=303;aulast=Handa">"Plagiarism and publication ethics: Dos and don'ts"</a>. <i>Indian Journal of Dermatology Venereology and Leprology</i> <b>74</b> (4): 301–303.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Plagiarism+and+publication+ethics%3A+Dos+and+don%27ts&amp;rft.aufirst=Handa&amp;rft.aulast=Sanjeev&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijdvl.com%2Farticle.asp%3Fissn%3D0378-6323%3Byear%3D2008%3Bvolume%3D74%3Bissue%3D4%3Bspage%3D301%3Bepage%3D303%3Baulast%3DHanda&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Dermatology+Venereology+and+Leprology&amp;rft.pages=301-303&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=74" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Sigelman, Lee (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu:2048/stable/25791607?Search=yes&amp;resultItemClick=true&amp;searchText=publication&amp;searchText=AND&amp;searchText=bias*&amp;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dpublication%2BAND%2Bbias%2A%26amp%3Bprq%3Dpublication%2Bethics%2BAND%2Bguidelines%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bhp%3D25%26amp%3Bso%3Drel%26amp%3Bacc%3Don&amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">"Publication Bias Reconsidered"</a>. <i>Political Analysis</i> <b>8</b> (2): 201–210. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.pan.a029813">10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029813</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Publication+Bias+Reconsidered&amp;rft.aufirst=Lee&amp;rft.aulast=Sigelman&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu%3A2048%2Fstable%2F25791607%3FSearch%3Dyes%26resultItemClick%3Dtrue%26searchText%3Dpublication%26searchText%3DAND%26searchText%3Dbias%2A%26searchUri%3D%252Faction%252FdoBasicSearch%253FQuery%253Dpublication%252BAND%252Bbias%252A%2526amp%253Bprq%253Dpublication%252Bethics%252BAND%252Bguidelines%2526amp%253Bgroup%253Dnone%2526amp%253Bwc%253Don%2526amp%253Bfc%253Doff%2526amp%253Bhp%253D25%2526amp%253Bso%253Drel%2526amp%253Bacc%253Don%26seq%3D1%23page_scan_tab_contents&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.pan.a029813&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Political+Analysis&amp;rft.pages=201-210&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=8" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Peters, Jamie L.; Sutton, Alex J.; Jones, David R.; Abrams, Keith R.; Rushton, Lesley; Moreno, Santiago G. (July 2010). "Assessing publication bias in meta-analysis in the presence of between-study heterogeneity". <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (Statistics in Society)</i> <b>173</b> (3): 575–591. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-985x.2009.00629.x">10.1111/j.1467-985x.2009.00629.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Assessing+publication+bias+in+meta-analysis+in+the+presence+of+between-study+heterogeneity&amp;rft.au=Abrams%2C+Keith+R.&amp;rft.aufirst=Jamie+L.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+David+R.&amp;rft.aulast=Peters&amp;rft.au=Moreno%2C+Santiago+G.&amp;rft.au=Rushton%2C+Lesley&amp;rft.au=Sutton%2C+Alex+J.&amp;rft.date=2010-07&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-985x.2009.00629.x&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Statistical+Society.+Series+A+%28Statistics+in+Society%29&amp;rft.pages=575-591&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=173" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Smith, Richard (July 26, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu:2048/stable/25175246?Search=yes&amp;resultItemClick=true&amp;searchText=publication&amp;searchText=AND&amp;searchText=ethics&amp;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dpublication%2BAND%2Bethics%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">"Misconduct in Research: Editors Respond: The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) Is Formed"</a>. <i>British Medical Journal</i> <b>315</b> (7102): 201–202. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.315.7102.201">10.1136/bmj.315.7102.201</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Misconduct+in+Research%3A+Editors+Respond%3A+The+Committee+on+Publication+Ethics+%28COPE%29+Is+Formed&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.date=1997-07-26&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org.summit.csuci.edu%3A2048%2Fstable%2F25175246%3FSearch%3Dyes%26resultItemClick%3Dtrue%26searchText%3Dpublication%26searchText%3DAND%26searchText%3Dethics%26searchUri%3D%252Faction%252FdoBasicSearch%253FQuery%253Dpublication%252BAND%252Bethics%2526amp%253Bacc%253Don%2526amp%253Bwc%253Don%2526amp%253Bfc%253Doff%2526amp%253Bgroup%253Dnone%26seq%3D1%23page_scan_tab_contents&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.315.7102.201&amp;rft.issue=7102&amp;rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&amp;rft.pages=201-202&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=315" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-GILLIGAN2009-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GILLIGAN2009_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Carol GILLIGAN (June 30, 2009). <i>IN A DIFFERENT VOICE</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03761-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03761-8">978-0-674-03761-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Carol+GILLIGAN&amp;rft.btitle=IN+A+DIFFERENT+VOICE&amp;rft.date=2009-06-30&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-674-03761-8&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis, C. (2007). Telling secrets, revealing lives: Relational ethics in research with intimate others. <i>Qualitative Inquiry, 13,</i> 3-29.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis, C. (1986). <i>Fisher folk. Two communities on Chesapeake Bay.</i> Lexington: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis, C. (1995).<i>Final negotiations: A story of love, loss, and chronic illness.</i> Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/Temple_University_Press" title="Temple University Press">Temple University Press</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Lapsley (2006) and "moral psychology" (2007).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Doris &amp; Stich (2008) and Wallace (2007). Wallace writes: "Moral psychology is the study of morality in its psychological dimensions" (p. 86).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Doris &amp; Stich (2008), §1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Doris Schroeder. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20131007081051/http://www.iep.utm.edu/evol-eth/">"Evolutionary Ethics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/evol-eth/">the original</a> on October 7, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 5,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.au=Doris+Schroeder&amp;rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Ethics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fevol-eth%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Hoy, D. (2005), Critical resistance from poststructuralism to postcritique, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, Massachusetts.</li>
<li>Lyon, D. (1999), Postmodernity, 2nd ed, <a href="/wiki/Open_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Open University Press">Open University Press</a>, Buckingham.</li>
<li>Singer, P. (2000), Writings on an ethical life, <a href="/wiki/Harper_Collins_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper Collins Publishers">Harper Collins Publishers</a>, London.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i></li>
<li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">London Philosophy Study Guide</a> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Ethics.htm">Ethics</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Ethics" title="Encyclopedia of Ethics">Encyclopedia of Ethics</a></i>. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi, J.</a> 1998: "The violence and the search for new values" in <i>Euskal Herria krisian</i>, (Elkar, 1999), pp.&#160;11–116. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8483315726" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 84-8331-572-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Blackburn, S.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/title/being-good-a-short-introduction-to-ethics/oclc/51644518"><i>Being good: A short introduction to ethics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</a></li>
<li>De Finance, Joseph, <i>An Ethical Inquiry</i>, Rome, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1991.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_A._De_La_Torre" title="Miguel A. De La Torre">De La Torre, Miguel A.</a>, "Doing Christian Ethics from the Margins," Orbis Books, 2004.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida, J.</a> 1995, <i>The Gift of Death</i>, translated by David Wills, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, Chicago.</li>
<li>Fagothey, Austin, <i>Right and Reason</i>, Tan Books &amp; Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas, E.</a> 1969, <i>Totality and infinity, an essay on exteriority</i>, translated by Alphonso Lingis, <a href="/wiki/Duquesne_University_Press" title="Duquesne University Press">Duquesne University Press</a>, Pittsburgh.</li>
<li><cite class="citation web"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Perle&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Perle (page does not exist)">Perle, Stephen</a> (March 11, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/22/06/16.html">"Morality and Ethics: An Introduction"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.aufirst=Stephen&amp;rft.aulast=Perle&amp;rft.btitle=Morality+and+Ethics%3A+An+Introduction&amp;rft.date=2004-03-11&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chiroweb.com%2Farchives%2F22%2F06%2F16.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Panayot_Butchvarov" title="Panayot Butchvarov">Butchvarov, Panayot</a>. Skepticism in Ethics (1989).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon" title="Robert C. Solomon">Solomon, R.C.</a>, <i>Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources</i>, New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Book_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Book Company">McGraw-Hill Book Company</a>, 1984.</li>
<li>Vendemiati, Aldo, <i>In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics</i>, Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004.</li>
<li>John Paul II, Encyclical Letter <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_06081993_veritatis-splendor_en.html"><i>Veritatis Splendor</i></a>, August 6, 1993.</li>
<li>D'Urance, Michel, <i>Jalons pour une éthique rebelle</i>, Aléthéia, Paris, 2005.</li>
<li>John Newton, Ph.D. <i>Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century</i>, 2000. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0967370574" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-9673705-7-4</a>.</li>
<li>Guy Cools &amp; Pascal Gielen, The Ethics of Art. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2014.</li>
<li>Lafollette, Hugh [ed.]: <i>Ethics in Practice: An Anthology.</i> Wiley Blackwell, 4th edition, Oxford 2014. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470671832" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0470671832</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="padding:0.25em 0.5em 0.5em 0.75em;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#f9f9f9;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">
<div style="clear:both;">Find more about<br />
<b>Ethics</b><br />
at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethics" title="Search Wiktionary"><img alt="Search Wiktionary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/25px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" width="25" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/50px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></a></td>
<td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethics" class="extiw" title="wikt:ethics">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Category:Ethics" title="Search Commons"><img alt="Search Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="18" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/37px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Category:Ethics" class="extiw" title="c:Special:Search/Category:Ethics">Media</a> from Commons</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Search Wikiquote"><img alt="Search Wikiquote" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/21px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" width="21" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/42px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ethics" class="extiw" title="q:Ethics">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Ethics" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="Search Wikisource" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="24" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/48px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Ethics" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Ethics">Texts</a> from Wikisource</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Ethics" title="Search Wikibooks"><img alt="Search Wikibooks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/25px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/50px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Ethics" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Ethics">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Search Wikiversity"><img alt="Search Wikiversity" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/25px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png" width="25" height="23" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/38px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/50px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="900" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ethics" class="extiw" title="v:Ethics">Learning resources</a> from Wikiversity</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465" title="Search Wikidata"><img alt="Search Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/25px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/38px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/50px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465" class="extiw" title="d:Q9465">Data</a> from Wikidata</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks infobox" style="float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY">Library resources</a> about<br />
<b>Ethics</b>
<hr /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;">
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Ethics">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Ethics&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/meta-ethics">Meta-Ethics</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/normative-ethics">Normative Ethics</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/applied-ethics">Applied Ethics</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2243">Ethics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/Ethics">"Ethics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics&amp;rft.atitle=Ethics&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2FEthics&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43789">An Introduction to Ethics</a> by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/frankena/ethics.html"><i>Ethics</i></a>, 2d ed., 1973. by <a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">William Frankena</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.open2.net/ethicsbites/index.html">Ethics Bites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a> podcast series podcast exploring ethical dilemmas in everyday life.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/nrc/">National Reference Center for Bioethics Literature</a> World's largest library for ethical issues in medicine and biomedical research</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utilitarian.net/singer/by/1985----.htm">Ethics</a> entry in Encyclopædia Britannica by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophyarchive.com/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_Ethics">The Philosophy of Ethics</a> on Philosophy Archive</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.klice.co.uk/">Kirby Laing Institute for Christian Ethics</a> Resources, events, and research on a range of ethical subjects from a Christian perspective.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icog.es/iageth/">International Association for Geoethics (IAGETH)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geoethics.org">International Association for Promoting Geoethics (IAPG)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scu.edu/ethics/">Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University</a> Resources for analyzing real-world ethical issues and tools to address them.</li>
</ul>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_topics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Ethics</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><strong class="selflink">Ethics</strong></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Ethics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><strong class="selflink">Ethics</strong></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Ethics of care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering or Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">full index...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Philosophers</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">William Frankena</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">more...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ethics" title="Portal:Ethics">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4015602-3">4015602-3</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569521">00569521</a></span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="noprint metadata" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" style="text-align:center;font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;margin-top:1em;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.4em 2em;background:#fdfdfd">
<ul style="margin:0">
<li style="display:inline;white-space:nowrap"><span style="margin:auto 0.5em"><a href="/wiki/File:Conscience_and_law.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Conscience and law.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Conscience_and_law.jpg/24px-Conscience_and_law.jpg" width="24" height="18" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Conscience_and_law.jpg/36px-Conscience_and_law.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Conscience_and_law.jpg/48px-Conscience_and_law.jpg 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="556" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ethics" title="Portal:Ethics">Ethics portal</a></li>
<li style="display:inline;white-space:nowrap"><span style="margin:auto 0.5em"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Socrates.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/14px-Socrates.png" width="14" height="21" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>


<!--
NewPP limit report
Parsed by mw1163
Cached time: 20160708145917
Cache expiry: 2592000
Dynamic content: false
CPU time usage: 1.147 seconds
Real time usage: 1.355 seconds
Preprocessor visited node count: 5530/1000000
Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000
Post?expand include size: 308547/2097152 bytes
Template argument size: 23136/2097152 bytes
Highest expansion depth: 16/40
Expensive parser function count: 7/500
Lua time usage: 0.514/10.000 seconds
Lua memory usage: 5.87 MB/50 MB
Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1-->

<!--
Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)
100.00% 1054.115      1 - -total
 43.25%  455.879      1 - Template:Reflist
 20.01%  210.977     25 - Template:Cite_book
  8.13%   85.649     10 - Template:Cite_journal
  7.78%   81.973      1 - Template:Philosophy_topics
  7.34%   77.357      1 - Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups
  5.97%   62.939      9 - Template:Navbox
  4.47%   47.071      6 - Template:Category_handler
  4.38%   46.165      7 - Template:Cite_web
  4.23%   44.567     23 - Template:Main
-->

<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:9258-0!*!0!!en!4!* and timestamp 20160708145915 and revision id 728916666
 -->
<noscript><img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" /></noscript></div>					<div class="printfooter">
						Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;oldid=728916666">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;oldid=728916666</a>"					</div>
				<div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_life" title="Category:Philosophy of life">Philosophy of life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Axiology" title="Category:Axiology">Axiology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_November_2014" title="Category:Use mdy dates from November 2014">Use mdy dates from November 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2009" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_may_contain_original_research_from_July_2009" title="Category:Articles that may contain original research from July 2009">Articles that may contain original research from July 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_February_2010" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2010">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_May_2009" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2009">Articles needing additional references from May 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_GND_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers">Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers</a></li></ul></div></div>				<div class="visualClear"></div>
							</div>
		</div>
		<div id="mw-navigation">
			<h2>Navigation menu</h2>

			<div id="mw-head">
									<div id="p-personal" role="navigation" class="" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label">
						<h3 id="p-personal-label">Personal tools</h3>
						<ul>
							<li id="pt-anonuserpage">Not logged in</li><li id="pt-anontalk"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li><li id="pt-anoncontribs"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Ethics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory">Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Ethics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o">Log in</a></li>						</ul>
					</div>
									<div id="left-navigation">
										<div id="p-namespaces" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-namespaces-label">
						<h3 id="p-namespaces-label">Namespaces</h3>
						<ul>
															<li  id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Ethics"  title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></span></li>
															<li  id="ca-talk"><span><a href="/wiki/Talk:Ethics"  title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t" rel="discussion">Talk</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-variants" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-variants-label">
												<h3 id="p-variants-label">
							<span>Variants</span><a href="#"></a>
						</h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
									</div>
				<div id="right-navigation">
										<div id="p-views" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-views-label">
						<h3 id="p-views-label">Views</h3>
						<ul>
															<li id="ca-view" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Ethics" >Read</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-edit"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=edit"  title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-history" class="collapsible"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=history"  title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-cactions" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-cactions-label">
						<h3 id="p-cactions-label"><span>More</span><a href="#"></a></h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
										<div id="p-search" role="search">
						<h3>
							<label for="searchInput">Search</label>
						</h3>

						<form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform">
							<div id="simpleSearch">
							<input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"/><input type="hidden" value="Special:Search" name="title"/><input type="submit" name="fulltext" value="Search" title="Search Wikipedia for this text" id="mw-searchButton" class="searchButton mw-fallbackSearchButton"/><input type="submit" name="go" value="Go" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists" id="searchButton" class="searchButton"/>							</div>
						</form>
					</div>
									</div>
			</div>
			<div id="mw-panel">
				<div id="p-logo" role="banner"><a class="mw-wiki-logo" href="/wiki/Main_Page"  title="Visit the main page"></a></div>
						<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-navigation' aria-labelledby='p-navigation-label'>
			<h3 id='p-navigation-label'>Navigation</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-mainpage-description"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-featuredcontent"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Featured_content" title="Featured content – the best of Wikipedia">Featured content</a></li><li id="n-currentevents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Find background information on current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Load a random article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-sitesupport"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en" title="Support us">Donate to Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-shoplink"><a href="//shop.wikimedia.org" title="Visit the Wikipedia store">Wikipedia store</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-interaction' aria-labelledby='p-interaction-label'>
			<h3 id='p-interaction-label'>Interaction</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-help"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Find out about Wikipedia">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-portal"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="About the project, what you can do, where to find things">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes in the wiki [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-contactpage"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-tb' aria-labelledby='p-tb-label'>
			<h3 id='p-tb-label'>Tools</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Ethics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Ethics" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;oldid=728916666" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-wikibase"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li><li id="t-cite"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Ethics&amp;id=728916666" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-coll-print_export' aria-labelledby='p-coll-print_export-label'>
			<h3 id='p-coll-print_export-label'>Print/export</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=book_creator&amp;referer=Ethics">Create a book</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rdf2latex"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=render_article&amp;arttitle=Ethics&amp;returnto=Ethics&amp;oldid=728916666&amp;writer=rdf2latex">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-wikibase-otherprojects' aria-labelledby='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>
			<h3 id='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>In other projects</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ethics" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Ethics" hreflang="en">Wikibooks</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ethics" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-lang' aria-labelledby='p-lang-label'>
			<h3 id='p-lang-label'>Languages</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiek" title="Etiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="أخلاقيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="নীতিশাস?ত?র – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BBn-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Lûn-lí-ha?k – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этыка – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88tica" title="Ètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moeseg" title="Moeseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral" title="Moral – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eetika" title="Eetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ηθική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiko" title="Etiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="?لس?ه اخلاق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="//fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%B0afr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Siðafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89thique" title="Éthique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyk" title="Etyk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eitic" title="Eitic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="倫?學 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A4%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="윤리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բարոյագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="आचारशास?त?र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethica" title="Ethica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Siðfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A8" title="פילוסופיה של המוסר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tika" title="Étika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ეთიკ? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maadili" title="Maadili – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="//ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiik" title="Etiik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exlaq" title="Exlaq – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="//lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B3" title="ຈະລິ?ະທຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethica" title="Ethica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92tika" title="Ētika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiek" title="Ethiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/marde" title="marde – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_(filoz%C3%B3fia)" title="Etika (filozófia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നീതിശാസ?ത?രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%81%D1%81_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="?? зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အက်သစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiek" title="Ethiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नैतिकता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="倫?学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etikk" title="Etikk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etikk" title="Etikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਨੀਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%86" title="ورتن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="اخلاق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etix" title="Etix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="//km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%91" title="ចរិយាមារយាទ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសា?្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyka" title="Etyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etic%C4%83" title="Etică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88tica" title="Ètica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="?ەلسە?ەی ئەخلاق – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tika" title="Étika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiikka" title="Etiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF" title="நன?னெறி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="จริยธรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="//tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1" title="Одоб – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اخلاقیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a href="//za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lwnzleixyoz" title="Lwnzleixyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_%C4%91%E1%BB%A9c_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="?ạo đức h?c – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik%C3%A1" title="Etiká – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="//wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦?学 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">?语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מידות – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="倫?學 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="//diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦?学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नैतिकता – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
				<div class='after-portlet after-portlet-lang'><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div>			</div>
		</div>
				</div>
		</div>
		<div id="footer" role="contentinfo">
							<ul id="footer-info">
											<li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 8 July 2016, at 14:59.</li>
											<li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" style="display:none;"></a>;
additional terms may apply.  By using this site, you agree to the <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="//www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li>
									</ul>
							<ul id="footer-places">
											<li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="wmf:Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" title="Wikipedia:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute">Developers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethics&amp;mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li>
									</ul>
										<ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint">
											<li id="footer-copyrightico">
							<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="/static/images/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="/static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation"/></a>						</li>
											<li id="footer-poweredbyico">
							<a href="//www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31"/></a>						</li>
									</ul>
						<div style="clear:both"></div>
		</div>
		<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.state({"ext.globalCssJs.site":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready"});mw.loader.load(["ext.cite.a11y","mediawiki.toc","mediawiki.action.view.postEdit","site","mediawiki.user","mediawiki.hidpi","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.searchSuggest","ext.eventLogging.subscriber","ext.gadget.teahouse","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.DRN-wizard","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.featured-articles-links","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","schema.UniversalLanguageSelector","ext.uls.eventlogger","ext.uls.interlanguage"]);});</script><script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":90,"wgHostname":"mw1265"});});</script>
	</body>
</html>
