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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Epistemology</h1>
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<p><b>Epistemology</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="noexcerpt"><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/En-uk-epistemology.ogg" title="Listen"><img alt="Listen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg/11px-Speakerlink-new.svg.png" width="11" height="11" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg/17px-Speakerlink-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg/22px-Speakerlink-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="11" data-file-height="11" /></a><sup><span class="IPA" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;padding:0 .1em"><a href="/wiki/File:En-uk-epistemology.ogg" title="File:En-uk-epistemology.ogg">i</a></span></sup></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɪ/ or /ə/ 'e' in 'roses'">ᵻ</span><span title="/ˌ/ secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɪ/ short 'i' in 'bid'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɪ/ or /ə/ 'e' in 'roses'">ᵻ</span><span title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɒ/ short 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/ 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/ 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/ 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%90%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:?πιστήμη">?πιστήμη</a><i>, epistēmē</i>, meaning "knowledge", and <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:λόγος">λόγος</a><i>, <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>, meaning "word") is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines_and_sub-disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines">branch</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> concerned with the theory of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></p>
<p>Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, the rationality of belief, and justification. Much of the debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">philosophical analysis</a> of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">justification</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Philosophy-Epistemology_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Philosophy-Epistemology-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> (2) various problems of <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a>, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification.</p>
<p>The term was first used by Scottish philosopher <a href="/wiki/James_Frederick_Ferrier" title="James Frederick Ferrier">James Frederick Ferrier</a> in 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[a]</a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Knowledge"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Knowledge</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Belief"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Belief</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Truth"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Truth</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Justification"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Justification</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Gettier_problem"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Gettier problem</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Responses_to_Gettier"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Responses to Gettier</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-8"><a href="#Infallibilism.2C_indefeasibility"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Infallibilism, indefeasibility</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-9"><a href="#Reliabilism"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Reliabilism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-10"><a href="#Other_responses"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Other responses</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Externalism_and_internalism"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Externalism and internalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Value_problem"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Value problem</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Acquiring_knowledge"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Acquiring knowledge</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#A_priori_and_a_posteriori_knowledge"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Analytic.E2.80.93synthetic_distinction"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Analytic–synthetic distinction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Branches_or_schools_of_thought"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Branches or schools of thought</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Historical"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Empiricism"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Empiricism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Idealism"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Idealism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Rationalism"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Rationalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Constructivism"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Constructivism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Regress_problem"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Regress problem</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Response_to_the_regress_problem"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Response to the regress problem</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-24"><a href="#Foundationalism"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Foundationalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-25"><a href="#Coherentism"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Coherentism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-26"><a href="#Foundherentism"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Foundherentism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-27"><a href="#Infinitism"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Infinitism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Skepticism"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Skepticism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Works_cited"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Works cited</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The word <i>epistemology</i> is derived from the ancient Greek <i>epistēmē</i> meaning "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De)pisth%2Fmh">scientific knowledge</a>" and <i>logos</i> meaning "speech" or "word", in this context denoting "codified knowledge of". <a href="/wiki/James_Frederick_Ferrier" title="James Frederick Ferrier">J.F. Ferrier</a> coined <i>epistemology</i> on the model of '<a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>', to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the 'true beginning' of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept <i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaftslehre" class="mw-redirect" title="Wissenschaftslehre">Wissenschaftslehre</a></i>, which was used by German philosophers <a href="/wiki/Johann_Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Fichte">Johann Fichte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard Bolzano</a> for different projects before it was taken up again by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a>. French philosophers then gave the term <i>épistémologie</i> a narrower meaning as 'theory of knowledge <i>[théorie de la connaissance]</i>.' E.g., <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Meyerson" title="Émile Meyerson">Émile Meyerson</a> opened his <i>Identity and Reality</i>, written in 1908, with the remark that the word 'is becoming current' as equivalent to 'the philosophy of the sciences.'<sup id="cite_ref-Epistemology_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epistemology-6">[5]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Knowledge">Knowledge</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Knowledge">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a series on</td>
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<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></th>
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<td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Approximation" title="Approximation">Approximation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Doubt" title="Doubt">Doubt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proof_(truth)" title="Proof (truth)">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li>
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<p>Related concepts and fundamentals:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Epistemology</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition_(philosophy)" title="Presupposition (philosophy)">Presupposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>
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<p>In mathematics, it is known <i>that</i> 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing <i>how</i> to add two numbers, and knowing a <i>person</i> (e.g., oneself), <i>place</i> (e.g., one's hometown), <i>thing</i> (e.g., cars), or <i>activity</i> (e.g., addition). Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between <a href="/wiki/Propositional_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional knowledge">"knowing that,"</a> <a href="/wiki/Know-how" title="Know-how">"knowing how,"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">"acquaintance-knowledge,"</a> with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></sup></p>
<p>While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages (N.B. some languages related to English have been said to retain these verbs, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>: "wit" and "<a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ken#Scots" class="extiw" title="wikt:ken">ken</a>"). In French, Portuguese and Spanish, <i>to know (a person)</i> is translated using <i>connaître,</i> <i>conhecer,</i> and <i>conocer,</i> respectively, whereas <i>to know (how to do something)</i> is translated using <i>savoir</i>, <i>saber</i>, and <i>saber</i>. Modern Greek has the verbs <i>γνω?ίζω</i> (gnorízo) and <i>ξέ?ω</i> (kséro). Italian has the verbs <i>conoscere</i> and <i>sapere</i> and the nouns for <i>knowledge</i> are <i>conoscenza</i> and <i>sapienza.</i> German has the verbs <i>kennen</i> and <i>wissen.</i> <i>Wissen</i> implies knowing a fact, <i>kennen</i> implies knowing in the sense of being acquainted with and having a working knowledge of; there is also a noun derived from <i>kennen,</i> namely <i>Erkennen,</i> which has been said to imply knowledge in the form of recognition or acknowledgment. The verb itself implies a process: you have to go from one state to another, from a state of "not-<i>erkennen</i>" to a state of true <i>erkennen.</i> This verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the "episteme" in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name "<a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkenntnistheorie" class="extiw" title="de:Erkenntnistheorie">Erkenntnistheorie</a>." The theoretical interpretation and significance of these linguistic issues remains controversial.</p>
<p>In his paper <i>On Denoting</i> and his later book <i>Problems of Philosophy</i> <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> stressed the distinction between "<a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_description" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge by description">knowledge by description</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">knowledge by acquaintance</a>". <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a> is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Mind" title="The Concept of Mind">The Concept of Mind</a>.</i> In <i>Personal Knowledge,</i> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a> argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a <a href="/wiki/Bicycle" title="Bicycle">bicycle</a>, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> involved in maintaining a state of <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_dynamics#Balance" title="Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics">balance</a> cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded. This position is essentially Ryle's, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress" title="Infinite regress">infinite regress</a>.</p>
<p>In recent times, epistemologists including (<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Sosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Greco_(philosopher)" title="John Greco (philosopher)">Greco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Kvanvig" title="Jonathan Kvanvig">Kvanvig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski" title="Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski">Zagzebski</a>) and Duncan Pritchard have argued that epistemology should evaluate people's "properties" (i.e., intellectual virtues) and not just the properties of propositions or of propositional mental attitudes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Belief">Belief</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Belief">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></div>
<p>In common speech, a "statement of belief" is typically an expression of faith and/or trust in a person, power or other entity — while it includes such traditional views, epistemology is also concerned with what we believe. This includes 'the' truth, and everything else we accept as 'true' for ourselves from a cognitive point of view.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Truth">Truth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Truth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></div>
<p>Whether someone's belief is true is not a prerequisite for (its) belief. On the other hand, if something is actually <i>known</i>, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, if a person believes that a bridge is safe enough to support him, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses under his weight, it could be said that he <i>believed</i> that the bridge was safe but that his belief was mistaken. It would <i>not</i> be accurate to say that he <i>knew</i> that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself (by crossing it), he <i>knows</i> it was safe.</p>
<p>Epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper <a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">truth-bearer</a>. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true <a href="/wiki/Propositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositions">propositions</a>, and others as a system of justified true sentences. Plato, in his <a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a>, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (November 2015)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">Criteria of truth</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Justification">Justification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Justification">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In many of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s dialogues, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> and, in particular, the <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> considers a number of theories as to what knowledge is, the last being that knowledge is true belief that has been "given an account of" (meaning explained or defined in some way). According to the theory that knowledge is justified true belief, in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good reason for doing so. One implication of this would be that no one would gain knowledge just by believing something that happened to be true. For example, an ill person with no medical training, but with a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that he will recover from his illness quickly. Nevertheless, even if this belief turned out to be true, the patient would not have <i>known</i> that he would get well since his belief lacked justification.</p>
<p>The definition of knowledge as justified true belief was widely accepted until the 1960s. At this time, a paper written by the American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a> provoked major widespread discussion. (See <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">theories of justification</a> for other views on the idea.)</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Gettier_problem">Gettier problem</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Gettier problem">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></div>
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<a href="/wiki/Euler_diagram" title="Euler diagram">Euler diagram</a> representing a definition of knowledge.</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a> is best known for a short paper entitled 'Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?' published in 1963, which called into question the theory of knowledge that had been dominant among philosophers for thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-gettier_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gettier-8">[7]</a></sup> In a few pages, Gettier argued that there are situations in which one's belief may be justified and true, yet fail to count as knowledge. That is, Gettier contended that while justified belief in a true proposition is necessary for that proposition to be known, it is not sufficient. As in the diagram, a true proposition can be believed by an individual (purple region) but still not fall within the "knowledge" category (yellow region).</p>
<p>According to Gettier, there are certain circumstances in which one does not have knowledge, even when all of the above conditions are met. Gettier proposed two <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiments</a>, which have come to be known as "Gettier cases," as <a href="/wiki/Counterexample" title="Counterexample">counterexamples</a> to the classical account of knowledge. One of the cases involves two men, Smith and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their applications for the same job. Each man has ten coins in his pocket. Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Jones will get the job and, furthermore, knows that Jones has ten coins in his pocket (he recently counted them). From this Smith infers, "the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket." However, Smith is unaware that he also has ten coins in his own pocket. Furthermore, Smith, not Jones, is going to get the job. While Smith has strong evidence to believe that Jones will get the job, he is wrong. Smith has a justified true belief that a man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job; however, according to Gettier, Smith does not <i>know</i> that a man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job, because Smith's belief is "...true by virtue of the number of coins in <i>Jones's</i> pocket, while Smith does not know how many coins are in Smith's pocket, and bases his belief...on a count of the coins in Jones's pocket, whom he falsely believes to be the man who will get the job." (see<sup id="cite_ref-gettier_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gettier-8">[7]</a></sup> p.&#160;122.) These cases fail to be knowledge because the subject's belief is justified, but only happens to be true by virtue of luck. In other words, he made the correct choice (in this case predicting an outcome) for the wrong reasons. This example is similar to those often given when discussing belief and truth, wherein a person's belief of what will happen can coincidentally be correct without his or her having the actual knowledge to base it on.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Responses_to_Gettier">Responses to Gettier</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Responses to Gettier">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The responses to Gettier have been varied. Usually, they have involved substantial attempts to provide a definition of knowledge different from the classical one, either by recasting knowledge as justified true belief with some additional fourth condition, or proposing a completely new set of conditions, disregarding the classical ones entirely.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Infallibilism.2C_indefeasibility">Infallibilism, indefeasibility</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Infallibilism, indefeasibility">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>In one response to Gettier, the American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirkham" title="Richard Kirkham">Richard Kirkham</a> has argued that the only definition of knowledge that could ever be immune to all counterexamples is the <a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">infallibilist</a> one.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup> To qualify as an item of knowledge, goes the theory, a belief must not only be true and justified, the justification of the belief must <i>necessitate</i> its truth. In other words, the justification for the belief must be infallible.</p>
<p>Yet another possible candidate for the fourth condition of knowledge is <i>indefeasibility.</i> <a href="/wiki/Defeasibility" title="Defeasibility">Defeasibility</a> theory maintains that there should be no overriding or defeating truths for the reasons that justify one's belief. For example, suppose that person <i>S</i> believes he saw Tom Grabit steal a book from the library and uses this to justify the claim that Tom Grabit stole a book from the library. A possible defeater or overriding proposition for such a claim could be a true proposition like, "Tom Grabit's identical twin Sam is currently in the same town as Tom." When no defeaters of one's justification exist, a subject would be epistemelogically justified.</p>
<p>The Indian philosopher <a href="/wiki/B_K_Matilal" class="mw-redirect" title="B K Matilal">B K Matilal</a> has drawn on the <a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a> <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a> tradition to respond to the Gettier problem. Nyaya theory distinguishes between <i>know p</i> and <i>know that one knows p</i> – these are different events, with different causal conditions. The second level is a sort of implicit inference that usually follows immediately the episode of knowing p (knowledge <i>simpliciter</i>). The Gettier case is examined by referring to a view of <a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangesha Upadhyaya</a> (late 12th century), who takes any true belief to be knowledge; thus a true belief acquired through a wrong route may just be regarded as knowledge simpliciter on this view. The question of justification arises only at the second level, when one considers the knowledgehood of the acquired belief. Initially, there is lack of uncertainty, so it becomes a true belief. But at the very next moment, when the hearer is about to embark upon the venture of <i>knowing whether he knows p</i>, doubts may arise. "If, in some Gettier-like cases, I am wrong in my inference about the knowledgehood of the given occurrent belief (for the evidence may be pseudo-evidence), then I am mistaken about the truth of my belief – and this is in accordance with Nyaya fallibilism: not all knowledge-claims can be sustained."<sup id="cite_ref-Matilal_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matilal-10">[9]</a></sup></p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Reliabilism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></div>
<p>Reliabilism has been a significant line of response to the Gettier problem among philosophers, originating with work by <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a> in the 1960s. According to reliabilism, a belief is justified (or otherwise supported in such a way as to count towards knowledge) only if it is produced by processes that typically yield a sufficiently high ratio of true to false beliefs. In other words, this theory states that a true belief counts as knowledge only if it is produced by a reliable belief-forming process. Examples of reliable processes include: standard perceptual processes, remembering, good reasoning, and introspection.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup></p>
<p>Reliabilism has been challenged by Gettier cases. Another argument that challenges reliabilism, like the Gettier cases (although it was not presented in the same short article as the Gettier cases), is the case of Henry and the barn façades. In the thought experiment, a man, Henry, is driving along and sees a number of buildings that resemble barns. Based on his perception of one of these, he concludes that he has just seen barns. While he has seen one, and the perception he based his belief that the one he saw was of a real barn, all the other <a href="/wiki/Barn" title="Barn">barn</a>-like buildings he saw were façades. Theoretically, Henry does not know that he has seen a barn, despite both his belief that he has seen one being true and his belief being formed on the basis of a reliable process (i.e. his vision), since he only acquired his true belief by accident.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_responses">Other responses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Other responses">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> has offered the following definition of knowledge: <i>S</i> knows that <i>P</i> if and only if:</p>
<ul>
<li><i>P</i>;</li>
<li><i>S</i> believes that <i>P</i>;</li>
<li>if <i>P</i> were false, <i>S</i> would not believe that <i>P</i>;</li>
<li>if <i>P</i> is true, <i>S</i> will believe that <i>P</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nozick_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nozick-13">[12]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<p>Nozick argues that the third of these conditions serves to address cases of the sort described by Gettier. Nozick further claims this condition addresses a case of the sort described by <a href="/wiki/D._M._Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="D. M. Armstrong">D. M. Armstrong</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-14">[13]</a></sup> A father believes his daughter innocent of committing a particular crime, both because of faith in his baby girl and (now) because he has seen presented in the courtroom a conclusive demonstration of his daughter's innocence. His belief via the method of the courtroom satisfies the four subjunctive conditions, but his faith-based belief does not. If his daughter were guilty, he would still believe her innocent, on the basis of faith in his daughter; this would violate the third condition.</p>
<p>The British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Simon Blackburn</a> has criticized this formulation by suggesting that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs, which, while they "track the truth" (as Nozick's account requires), are not held for appropriate reasons. He says that "we do not want to award the title of knowing something to someone who is only meeting the conditions through a defect, flaw, or failure, compared with someone else who is not meeting the conditions."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In addition to this, externalist accounts of knowledge, such as Nozick's, are often forced to reject closure in cases where it is intuitively valid.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a> has advanced a theory of knowledge according to which knowledge is not justified true belief plus some extra condition(s), but primary. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_its_Limits" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge and its Limits">Knowledge and its Limits</a>,</i> Williamson argues that the concept of knowledge cannot be broken down into a set of other concepts through analysis—instead, it is <i><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a>.</i> Thus, though knowledge requires justification, truth, and belief, the word "knowledge" can't be, according to Williamson's theory, accurately regarded as simply shorthand for "justified true belief."</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a> writes in his <a href="/wiki/Causal_Theory_of_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Theory of Knowledge">Causal Theory of Knowing</a> that in order for knowledge to truly exist there must be a <a href="/wiki/Causal_chain" title="Causal chain">causal chain</a> between the proposition and the belief of that proposition.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Externalism_and_internalism">Externalism and internalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Externalism and internalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></div>
<p>A central debate about the nature of justification is a debate between epistemological externalists on the one hand, and epistemological internalists on the other.</p>
<p>Externalists hold that factors deemed "external", meaning outside of the psychological states of those who gain knowledge, can be conditions of justification. For example, an externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that, in order for a justified true belief to count as knowledge, there must be a link or dependency between the belief and the state of the external world. Usually this is understood to be a causal link. Such causation, to the extent that it is "outside" the mind, would count as an external, knowledge-yielding condition. Internalists, on the other hand, assert that all knowledge-yielding conditions are within the psychological states of those who gain knowledge.</p>
<p>Though unfamiliar with the internalist/externalist debate himself, many point to <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> as an early example of the internalist path to justification. He wrote that, because the only method by which we perceive the external world is through our senses, and that, because the senses are not infallible, we should not consider our concept of knowledge to be infallible. The only way to find anything that could be described as "indubitably true," he advocates, would be to see things "clearly and distinctly".<sup id="cite_ref-Regulae_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Regulae-15">[14]</a></sup> He argued that if there is an omnipotent, good being who made the world, then it's reasonable to believe that people are made with the ability to know. However, this does not mean that man's ability to know is perfect. God gave man the ability to know, but not omniscience. Descartes said that man must use his capacities for knowledge correctly and carefully through methodological doubt.<sup id="cite_ref-Meditations_on_First_Philosophy_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meditations_on_First_Philosophy-16">[15]</a></sup> The dictum "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) is also commonly associated with Descartes' theory, because in his own methodological doubt, doubting everything he previously knew in order to start from a blank slate, the first thing that he could not logically bring himself to doubt was his own existence: "I do not exist" would be a contradiction in terms; the act of saying that one does not exist assumes that someone must be making the statement in the first place. Though Descartes could doubt his senses, his body and the world around him, he could not deny his own existence, because he was able to doubt and must exist in order to do so. Even if some "evil genius" were to be deceiving him, he would have to exist in order to be deceived. This one sure point provided him with what he would call his Archimedean point, in order to further develop his foundation for knowledge. Simply put, Descartes' epistemological justification depended upon his indubitable belief in his own existence and his clear and distinct knowledge of God.<sup id="cite_ref-Refutations_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Refutations-17">[16]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Value_problem">Value problem</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Value problem">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>We generally assume that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. If so, what is the explanation? A formulation of the value problem in epistemology first occurs in <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s Meno. Socrates points out to Meno that a man who knew the way to Larissa could lead others there correctly. But so, too, could a man who had true beliefs about how to get there, even if he had not gone there or had any knowledge of Larissa. Socrates says that it seems that both knowledge and true opinion can guide action. Meno then wonders why knowledge is valued more than true belief, and why knowledge and true belief are different. Socrates responds that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief because it is tethered, or justified. Justification, or working out the reason for a true belief, locks down true belief.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup></p>
<p>The problem is to identify what (if anything) makes knowledge more valuable than mere true belief, or that makes knowledge more valuable than a more minimal conjunction of its components, such as justification, safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and anti-Gettier conditions, on a particular analysis of knowledge that conceives of knowledge as divided into components (to which knowledge-first epistemological theories, which posit knowledge as fundamental, are notable exceptions).<sup id="cite_ref-SEPValue_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEPValue-19">[18]</a></sup> The value problem reemerged in the philosophical literature on epistemology in the twenty-first century following the rise of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">virtue epistemology</a> in the 1980s, partly because of the obvious link to the concept of value in ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-Pritchard-APQ_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pritchard-APQ-20">[19]</a></sup></p>
<p>The value problem has been presented as an argument against epistemic <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">reliabilism</a> by philosophers including <a href="/wiki/Linda_Zagzebski" class="mw-redirect" title="Linda Zagzebski">Linda Zagzebski</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayne_Riggs&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayne Riggs (page does not exist)">Wayne Riggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a>. Zagzebski analogizes the value of knowledge to the value of espresso produced by an espresso maker: “The liquid in this cup is not improved by the fact that it comes from a reliable espresso maker. If the espresso tastes good, it makes no difference if it comes from an unreliable machine.?<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> For Zagzebski, the value of knowledge deflates to the value of mere true belief. She assumes that reliability in itself has no value or disvalue, but Goldman and Olsson disagree. They point out that Zagzebski's conclusion rests on the assumption of veritism: all that matters is the acquisition of true belief.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> To the contrary, they argue that a reliable process for acquiring a true belief adds value to the mere true belief by making it more likely that future beliefs of a similar kind will be true. By analogy, having a reliable espresso maker that produced a good cup of espresso would be more valuable than having an unreliable one that luckily produced a good cup because the reliable one would more likely produce good future cups compared to the unreliable one.</p>
<p>The value problem is important to assessing the adequacy of theories of knowledge that conceive of knowledge as consisting of true belief and other components. According to <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Kvanvig" title="Jonathan Kvanvig">Kvanvig</a>, an adequate account of knowledge should resist counterexamples and allow an explanation of the value of knowledge over mere true belief. Should a theory of knowledge fail to do so, it would prove inadequate.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup></p>
<p>One of the more influential responses to the problem is that knowledge is not particularly valuable and is not what ought to be the main focus of epistemology. Instead, epistemologists ought to focus on other mental states, such as understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup> Advocates of virtue epistemology have argued that the value of knowledge comes from an internal relationship between the knower and the mental state of believing.<sup id="cite_ref-SEPValue_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEPValue-19">[18]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Acquiring_knowledge">Acquiring knowledge</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Acquiring knowledge">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="A_priori_and_a_posteriori_knowledge"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: A priori and a posteriori knowledge">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></div>
<p>The nature of this distinction has been disputed by various philosophers; however, the terms may be roughly defined as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori</a></i> knowledge is knowledge that is known independently of experience (that is, it is non-empirical, or arrived at beforehand, usually by reason). It will henceforth be acquired through anything that is independent from experience.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">A posteriori</a></i> knowledge is knowledge that is known by experience (that is, it is empirical, or arrived at afterward).</li>
</ul>
<p>A priori knowledge is a way of gaining knowledge without the need of experience. In Bruce Russell's article "A Priori Justification and Knowledge"<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> he says that it is "knowledge based on a priori justification," (1) which relies on intuition and the nature of these intuitions. A priori knowledge is often contrasted with posteriori knowledge, which is knowledge gained by experience. A way to look at the difference between the two is through an example. Bruce Russell gives two propositions in which the reader decides which one he believes more. Option A: All crows are birds. Option B: All crows are black. If you believe option A, then you are a priori justified in believing it because you don't have to see a crow to know it's a bird. If you believe in option B, then you are posteriori justified to believe it because you have seen many crows therefore knowing they are black. He goes on to say that it doesn't matter if the statement is true or not, only that if you believe in one or the other that matters.</p>
<p>The idea of a priori knowledge is that it is based on intuition or rational insights. Laurence BonJour says in his article "The Structure of Empirical Knowledge",<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup> that a "rational insight is an immediate, non-inferential grasp, apprehension or 'seeing' that some proposition is necessarily true." (3) Going back to the crow example, by Laurence BonJour's definition the reason you would believe in option A is because you have an immediate knowledge that a crow is a bird, without ever experiencing one.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> takes a novel approach to the problem. It says that there is an innate predisposition for certain types of learning. "Only small parts of the brain resemble a <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>; this is true even for human beings. The remainder is more like an exposed negative waiting to be dipped into a developer fluid"<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytic.E2.80.93synthetic_distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Analytic–synthetic distinction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, drew a distinction between "analytic" and "synthetic" propositions. He contended that some propositions are such that we can know them to be true just by understanding their meaning. For example, consider, "My father's brother is my uncle." We can know it to be true solely by virtue of our understanding what its terms mean. Philosophers call such propositions "analytic." Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and predicates. An example would be, "My father's brother has black hair." Kant stated that all mathematical and scientific statements are synthetic a priori propositions because they are <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessarily true</a> but our knowledge about the attributes of the mathematical or physical subjects we can only get by logical inference.</p>
<p>The American philosopher <a href="/wiki/W._V._O._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. O. Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i>, famously challenged the distinction, arguing that the two have a blurry boundary. Some contemporary philosophers have offered more sustainable accounts of the distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Branches_or_schools_of_thought">Branches or schools of thought</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Branches or schools of thought">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical">Historical</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Historical">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The historical study of philosophical epistemology is the historical study of efforts to gain philosophical understanding or knowledge of the nature and scope of human knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-History_of_Epistemology_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_Epistemology-29">[28]</a></sup> Since efforts to get that kind of understanding have a history, the questions philosophical epistemology asks today about human knowledge are not necessarily the same as they once were.<sup id="cite_ref-History_of_Epistemology_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_Epistemology-29">[28]</a></sup> But that does not mean that philosophical epistemology is itself a historical subject, or that it pursues only or even primarily historical understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-History_of_Epistemology_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_Epistemology-29">[28]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Empiricism">Empiricism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Empiricism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> is generally a theory of knowledge focusing on the role of experience, especially experience based on <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceptual observations</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>. Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> while some regard disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> as exceptions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>There are many variants of empiricism, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> being among the most commonly expounded. But central to all empiricist epistemologies is the notion of the epistemologically privileged status of <a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">sense data</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Idealism">Idealism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Idealism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Many <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealists</a> believe that knowledge is primarily (at least in some areas) acquired by <i>a priori</i> processes or is <a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">innate</a>—for example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "<a href="/wiki/Intuition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (philosophy)">intuition</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup> The relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly be part of the structure of the human <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> (as in <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>), or they may be said to exist independently of the mind (as in Plato's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">theory of Forms</a>).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Rationalism">Rationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Rationalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></div>
<p>By contrast with empiricism and idealism, which centres around the epistemologically privileged status of sense data (empirical) and the primacy of Reason (theoretical) respectively, modern rationalism adds a third 'system of thinking', (as <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a> has termed these areas) and holds that all three are of equal importance: The empirical, the theoretical and the <i>abstract</i>. For Bachelard, rationalism makes equal reference to all three systems of thinking.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Constructivism">Constructivism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Constructivism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a> is a view in philosophy according to which all "knowledge is a compilation of human-made constructions",<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup> "not the neutral discovery of an objective truth".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> Whereas objectivism is concerned with the "object of our knowledge", constructivism emphasises "how we construct knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup> Constructivism proposes new definitions for <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> that form a new <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a>, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objectivity</a>, and on viability instead of truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity—constructs can be validated through experimentation. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic;<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup> as <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a> said: "The norm of the truth is to have made it."</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Regress_problem">Regress problem</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Regress problem">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></div>
<p>The regress problem is the problem of providing a complete logical foundation for human knowledge. The traditional way of supporting a rational argument is to appeal to other rational arguments, typically using chains of reason and rules of logic. A classic example that goes back to Aristotle is deducing that <i>Socrates is mortal.</i> We have a logical rule that says <i>All humans are mortal</i> and an assertion that <i>Socrates is human</i> and we deduce that <i>Socrates is mortal</i>. In this example how do we know that Socrates is human? Presumably we apply other rules such as: <i>All born from human females are human.</i> Which then leaves open the question how do we know that all born from humans are human? This is the regress problem: how can we eventually terminate a logical argument with some statement(s) that do not require further justification but can still be considered rational and justified?</p>
<p>As John Pollock stated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... to justify a belief one must appeal to a further justified belief. This means that one of two things can be the case. Either there are some beliefs that we can be justified for holding, without being able to justify them on the basis of any other belief, or else for each justified belief there is an infinite regress of (potential) justification [the nebula theory]. On this theory there is no rock bottom of justification. Justification just meanders in and out through our network of beliefs, stopping nowhere.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollock_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollock-35">[34]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a>. It is also the impetus for Descartes' famous dictum: <i><a href="/wiki/I_think_therefore_I_am" class="mw-redirect" title="I think therefore I am">I think therefore I am</a></i>. Descartes was looking for some logical statement that could be true without appeal to other statements.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Response_to_the_regress_problem">Response to the regress problem</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Response to the regress problem">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Many epistemologists studying justification have attempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning that can escape the regress problem.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Foundationalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalists</a> respond to the regress problem by asserting that certain "foundations" or "basic beliefs" support other beliefs but do not themselves require justification from other beliefs. These beliefs might be justified because they are self-evident, infallible, or derive from reliable cognitive mechanisms. Perception, memory, and a priori intuition are often considered to be possible examples of basic beliefs.</p>
<p>The chief criticism of foundationalism is that if a belief is not supported by other beliefs, accepting it may be arbitrary or unjustified.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup></p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Coherentism">Coherentism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Coherentism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>Another response to the regress problem is <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>, which is the rejection of the assumption that the regress proceeds according to a pattern of linear justification. To avoid the charge of circularity, <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentists</a> hold that an individual belief is justified circularly by the way it fits together (coheres) with the rest of the belief system of which it is a part. This theory has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without claiming special, possibly arbitrary status for some particular class of beliefs. Yet, since a system can be coherent while also being wrong, coherentists face the difficulty of ensuring that the whole system <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">corresponds</a> to reality. Additionally, most logicians agree that any argument that is circular is trivially valid. That is, to be illuminating, arguments must be linear with conclusions that follow from stated premises.</p>
<p>However, Warburton writes in 'Thinking from A to Z,' "Circular arguments are not invalid; in other words, from a logical point of view there is nothing intrinsically wrong with them. However, they are, when viciously circular, spectacularly uninformative. (Warburton 1996)."</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Foundherentism">Foundherentism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Foundherentism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>A position known as "<a href="/wiki/Foundherentism" title="Foundherentism">foundherentism</a>", advanced by <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a>, is meant to be a unification of foundationalism and coherentism. One component of this theory is what is called the "analogy of the crossword puzzle." Whereas, for example, infinitists regard the regress of reasons as "shaped" like a single line, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a> has argued that it is more like a crossword puzzle, with multiple lines mutually supporting each other.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup></p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Infinitism">Infinitism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Infinitism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>An alternative resolution to the regress problem is known as "<a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">infinitism</a>". Infinitists take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons available to them, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons when the need arises. This position is motivated in part by the desire to avoid what is seen as the arbitrariness and circularity of its chief competitors, foundationalism and coherentism.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Skepticism">Skepticism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Skepticism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Philosophical skepticism</a></div>
<p>Skepticism is a position that questions the validity of some or all of human knowledge. Skepticism does not refer to any one specific school of philosophy, rather it is a thread that runs through many philosophical discussions of epistemology. The first well known sceptic was <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> who claimed that his only knowledge was that he knew nothing with certainty. <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>' most famous inquiry into mind and body also began as an exercise in skepticism. Descartes began by questioning the validity of all knowledge and looking for some fact that was irrefutable. In so doing, he came to his famous dictum: <a href="/wiki/I_think_therefore_I_am" class="mw-redirect" title="I think therefore I am">I think therefore I am</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> and the other responses to the regress problem are essentially defenses against skepticism. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a> of <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> can be viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Coherentist" class="mw-redirect" title="Coherentist">coherentist</a> defense against skepticism. James discarded conventional philosophical views of truth and defined truth to be based on how well a concept works in a specific context rather than objective rational criteria. The philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Logical_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical Positivism">Logical Positivism</a> and the work of philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Kuhn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a> can be viewed as skepticism applied to what can truly be considered scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote outlinearticle">For a topical guide to this subject, see <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a>.</div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. F. Ferrier (1854) <i>Institutes of Metaphysic: The Theory of Knowing and Being</i>, p.&#160;46.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></span></li>
</ol>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Noah_Porter" title="Noah Porter">Porter, Noah</a>, ed. (1913). "Epistemology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131015165808/http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&amp;word=epistemology&amp;use1913=on"><i>Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/G_%26_C._Merriam_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="G &amp; C. Merriam Co.">G &amp; C. Merriam Co.</a> p.&#160;501. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&amp;word=epistemology&amp;use1913=on">the original</a> on 22 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2014</span>. <q>E*pis`te*mol"o*gy (?), n. [Gr. knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Epistemology&amp;rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Revised+Unabridged+Dictionary&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmachaut.uchicago.edu%2F%3Fresource%3DWebster%2527s%26word%3Depistemology%26use1913%3Don&amp;rft.pages=501&amp;rft.pub=G+%26+C.+Merriam+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanford_Philosophy-Epistemology-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Philosophy-Epistemology_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Matthias_Steup&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Matthias Steup (page does not exist)">Steup, Matthias</a>. <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a>, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/epistemology">"Epistemology"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2014 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Epistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Matthias&amp;rft.aulast=Steup&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2014%2Fentries%2Fepistemology&amp;rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_M._Borchert&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald M. Borchert (page does not exist)">Borchert, Donald M.</a>, ed. (1967). "Epistemology". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> <b>3</b>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Epistemology&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Epistemology-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Epistemology_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Suchting, Wal. "Epistemology". <i>Historical Materialism</i> (Academic Search Premier): 331–345.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Epistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Wal&amp;rft.aulast=Suchting&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Historical+Materialism&amp;rft.pages=331-345&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Bengson (Editor), Marc A. Moffett (Editor): Essays on Knowledge, Mind, and Action. New York: Oxford University Press. 2011</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-gettier-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gettier_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gettier_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Gettier, Edmund (1963). "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?". <i>Analysis</i> <b>23</b> (6): 121–23. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F3326922">10.2307/3326922</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3326922">3326922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Is+Justified+True+Belief+Knowledge%3F&amp;rft.au=Gettier%2C+Edmund&amp;rft.date=1963&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3326922&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3326922&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.jtitle=Analysis&amp;rft.pages=121-23&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=23" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Richard L. Kirkham (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centenary.edu/attachments/philosophy/aizawa/courses/epistemologyf2008/kirkham1984.pdf">"Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mind</i> <b>93</b> (372): 501–513. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FXCIII.372.501">10.1093/mind/XCIII.372.501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Does+the+Gettier+Problem+Rest+on+a+Mistake%3F&amp;rft.au=Richard+L.+Kirkham&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.centenary.edu%2Fattachments%2Fphilosophy%2Faizawa%2Fcourses%2Fepistemologyf2008%2Fkirkham1984.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FXCIII.372.501&amp;rft.issue=372&amp;rft.jtitle=Mind&amp;rft.pages=501-513&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=93" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Matilal-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matilal_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Bimal_Krishna_Matilal" title="Bimal Krishna Matilal">Bimal Krishna Matilal</a> (1986). <i>Perception: An essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge</i>. Oxford India 2002. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824625-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824625-0">0-19-824625-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.au=Bimal+Krishna+Matilal&amp;rft.btitle=Perception%3A+An+essay+on+Classical+Indian+Theories+of+Knowledge&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-824625-0&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+India+2002&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> The Gettier problem is dealt with in Chapter 4, <i>Knowledge as a mental episode</i>. The thread continues in the next chapter <i>Knowing that one knows</i>. It is also discussed in Matilal's <i>Word and the World</i> p. 71-72.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Goldman, Alvin I. (1979). "Reliabilism: What Is Justified Belief?". In Pappas, G. S. (ed.). <i>Justification and Knowledge</i>. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel. p.&#160;11. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027710246" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027710246">978-9027710246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Reliabilism%3A+What+Is+Justified+Belief%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=Alvin+I.&amp;rft.aulast=Goldman&amp;rft.btitle=Justification+and+Knowledge&amp;rft.date=1979&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-9027710246&amp;rft.pages=11&amp;rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+Holland&amp;rft.pub=Reidel&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Goldman, Alan H. (December 1976). "Appearing as Irreducible in Perception". <i>Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</i> (International Phenomenological Society) <b>37</b> (2): 147–164. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2107188">10.2307/2107188</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2107188">2107188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Appearing+as+Irreducible+in+Perception&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan+H.&amp;rft.aulast=Goldman&amp;rft.date=1976-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2107188&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2107188&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Phenomenological+Research&amp;rft.pages=147-164&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=37" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Nozick-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nozick_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Robert Nozick (1981). <i>Philosophical Explanations</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-66448-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-66448-5">0-674-66448-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.au=Robert+Nozick&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophical+Explanations&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-674-66448-5&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Explanations" title="Philosophical Explanations">Philosophical Explanations</a> Chapter 3 "Knowledge and Skepticism" I. Knowledge <i>Conditions for Knowledge</i> p. 172-178.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Armstrong-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Armstrong_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">D. M. Armstrong (1973). <i>Belief, Truth and Knowledge</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09737-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09737-1">0-521-09737-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.au=D.+M.+Armstrong&amp;rft.btitle=Belief%2C+Truth+and+Knowledge&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-09737-1&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Regulae-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Regulae_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Descartes, Rene (1985). <i>The Philosophical Writings of Rene Descartes Vol. I</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28807-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28807-1">978-0-521-28807-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Rene&amp;rft.aulast=Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Writings+of+Rene+Descartes+Vol.+I&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-28807-1&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Meditations_on_First_Philosophy-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meditations_on_First_Philosophy_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Descartes, Rene (1985). <i>Philosophical Writings of Rene Descartes Vol. II</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28808-8">978-0-521-28808-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Rene&amp;rft.aulast=Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=Philosophical+Writings+of+Rene+Descartes+Vol.+II&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-28808-8&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Refutations-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Refutations_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Descartes, Rene (1985). <i>The Philosophical Writings of Rene Descartes</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28808-8">978-0-521-28808-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Rene&amp;rft.aulast=Descartes&amp;rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Writings+of+Rene+Descartes&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-28808-8&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Plato (2002). <i>Five Dialogues</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. Co. pp.&#160;89–90; 97b–98a. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872206335" title="Special:BookSources/978-0872206335">978-0872206335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.au=Plato&amp;rft.btitle=Five+Dialogues&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0872206335&amp;rft.pages=89-90%3B+97b-98a&amp;rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&amp;rft.pub=Hackett+Pub.+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SEPValue-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SEPValue_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEPValue_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Pritchard, Duncan; Turri, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-value/">"The Value of Knowledge"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=The+Value+of+Knowledge&amp;rft.aufirst=Duncan&amp;rft.aulast=Pritchard&amp;rft.au=Turri%2C+John&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fknowledge-value%2F&amp;rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Pritchard-APQ-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pritchard-APQ_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Pritchard, Duncan (April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20464361">"Recent Work on Epistemic Value"</a>. <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i> <b>44</b> (2): 85–110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Recent+Work+on+Epistemic+Value&amp;rft.aufirst=Duncan&amp;rft.aulast=Pritchard&amp;rft.date=2007-04&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20464361&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&amp;rft.pages=85-110&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=44" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Zagzebski, Linda. "The Search for the Source of Epistemic Good". <i>Metaphilosophy</i> <b>34</b> (1/2): 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=The+Search+for+the+Source+of+Epistemic+Good&amp;rft.aufirst=Linda&amp;rft.aulast=Zagzebski&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=1%2F2&amp;rft.jtitle=Metaphilosophy&amp;rft.pages=13&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=34" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Goldman, Alvin I. &amp; Olsson, E. J. (2009). "Reliabilism and the Value of Knowledge". In Haddock, A.; Millar, A. &amp; Pritchard, D. (Eds.). <i>Epistemic Value</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;24. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199231188" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199231188">978-0199231188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Reliabilism+and+the+Value+of+Knowledge&amp;rft.aufirst=Alvin+I.&amp;rft.aulast=Goldman&amp;rft.au=Olsson%2C+E.+J.&amp;rft.btitle=Epistemic+Value&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-0199231188&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kvanvig, Jonathan (2003). <i>The Value of Knowledge and the Pursuit of Understanding</i>. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;5. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521037860" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521037860">978-0521037860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan&amp;rft.aulast=Kvanvig&amp;rft.btitle=The+Value+of+Knowledge+and+the+Pursuit+of+Understanding&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0521037860&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kvanvig, Jonathan (2003). <i>The Value of Knowledge and the Pursuit of Understanding</i>. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521037860" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521037860">978-0521037860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan&amp;rft.aulast=Kvanvig&amp;rft.btitle=The+Value+of+Knowledge+and+the+Pursuit+of+Understanding&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0521037860&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Bruce, "A Priori Justification and Knowledge", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = &lt;<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/apriori/">http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/apriori/</a>&gt;.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BonJour, Laurence, 1985, The Structure of Empirical Knowledge, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, E. O., <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology:_The_New_Synthesis" title="Sociobiology: The New Synthesis">Sociobiology: The New Synthesis</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 1975</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, G.: Truth in Virtue of Meaning: A Defence of the Analytic/Synthetic Distinction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-History_of_Epistemology-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-History_of_Epistemology_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_of_Epistemology_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_of_Epistemology_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Stroud, Barry (2011). "The History of Epistemology". <i>Erkenntnis</i> <b>75</b> (3): 495–503. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10670-011-9337-4">10.1007/s10670-011-9337-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=The+History+of+Epistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Barry&amp;rft.aulast=Stroud&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10670-011-9337-4&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Erkenntnis&amp;rft.pages=495-503&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=75" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Markie, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#1.1">"Rationalism vs. Empiricism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Rationalism+vs.+Empiricism&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft.aulast=Markie&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frationalism-empiricism%2F%231.1&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raskin, J. D. (2002). Constructivism in psychology: Personal construct psychology, radical constructivism, and social constructivism. In J. D. Raskin &amp; S. K. Bridges (Eds.), <i>Studies in meaning: Exploring constructivist psychology</i> (pp. 1-25). New York , NY: Pace University Press. p. 4</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Castelló M., &amp; Botella,L. (2006). Constructivism and educational psychology. In J. L. Kincheloe &amp; R. A. Horn (Eds.), <i>The Praeger handbook of education and psychology</i> (Vol. 2, pp. 263-270). Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 263</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism, Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? <i>Educational technology research and development</i>, <i>39</i>(3), 5-14. p. 10</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an example, see Weber, Eric Thomas. 2010. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/us/rawls-dewey-and-constructivism-9781441199447/">Rawls, Dewey, and Constructivism: On the Epistemology of Justice</a></i> (London: Continuum).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Pollock-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pollock_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">John L. Pollock (1975). <i>Knowledge and Justification</i>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07203-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-07203-5">0-691-07203-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.au=John+L.+Pollock&amp;rft.btitle=Knowledge+and+Justification&amp;rft.date=1975&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-691-07203-5&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press%2C+Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> p. 26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational">"Foundational Theories of Epistemic Justification"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Foundational+Theories+of+Epistemic+Justification&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjustep-foundational&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Haack, Susan</a> (1993). <i>Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19679-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19679-X">0-631-19679-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=Susan&amp;rft.aulast=Haack&amp;rft.btitle=Evidence+and+Inquiry%3A+Towards+Reconstruction+in+Epistemology&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-631-19679-X&amp;rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Popkin, Richard (1972). "Skepticism". In Edwards, Paul. <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 7</i>. Macmillan. pp.&#160;449–461. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0028646510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0028646510">978-0028646510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Skepticism&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=Popkin&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+Volume+7&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-0028646510&amp;rft.pages=449-461&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Works_cited">Works cited</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Annis, David (1978). "A Contextualist Theory of Epistemic Justification". <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i> <b>15</b>: 213–219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=A+Contextualist+Theory+of+Epistemic+Justification&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.aulast=Annis&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&amp;rft.pages=213-219&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=15" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jules_Ayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Jules Ayer">Ayer, Alfred Jules</a>. 1936. <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i>.</li>
<li>BonJour, Laurence. 2002. <i>Epistemology: Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield.</li>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Boufoy-Bastick, Z. (2005). "Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge". <i>Sophia Journal of Philosophy</i> <b>8</b>: 39–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Introducing+%27Applicable+Knowledge%27+as+a+Challenge+to+the+Attainment+of+Absolute+Knowledge&amp;rft.aufirst=Z.&amp;rft.aulast=Boufoy-Bastick&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sophia+Journal+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=39-51&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=8" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luc_Bovens" title="Luc Bovens">Bovens, Luc</a> &amp; <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Hartmann" title="Stephan Hartmann">Hartmann, Stephan</a>. 2003. <i>Bayesian Epistemology</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panayot_Butchvarov" title="Panayot Butchvarov">Butchvarov, Panayot</a>. 1970. <i>The Concept of Knowledge</i>. Evanston, Northwestern University Press.</li>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Cohen, Stewart (1998). "Contextualist Solutions to Epistemological Problems: Skepticism, Gettier, and the Lottery". <i>Australasian Journal of Philosophy</i> <b>76</b> (2): 289–306. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00048409812348411">10.1080/00048409812348411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Contextualist+Solutions+to+Epistemological+Problems%3A+Skepticism%2C+Gettier%2C+and+the+Lottery&amp;rft.aufirst=Stewart&amp;rft.aulast=Cohen&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00048409812348411&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Australasian+Journal+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=289-306&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=76" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Cohen, Stewart. 1999. "Contextualism, Skepticism, and Reasons", in Tomberlin 1999.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dancy" title="Jonathan Dancy">Dancy, Jonathan</a>. 1991. <i>An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology</i> (Second Edition). John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631136223" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-631-13622-3</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">DeRose, Keith</a> (1992). "Contextualism and Knowledge Attributions". <i>Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</i> <b>15</b>: 213–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Contextualism+and+Knowledge+Attributions&amp;rft.aufirst=Keith&amp;rft.aulast=DeRose&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Phenomenological+Research&amp;rft.pages=213-19&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=15" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>DeRose, Keith. 1999. "Contextualism: An Explanation and Defense", in Greco and Sosa 1999.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes, Rene</a>. 1641. <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>Feldman, Richard. 1999. "Contextualism and Skepticism", in Tomberlin 1999, pp.&#160;91–114.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Gettier, Edmund</a>. 1963. "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", <i>Analysis</i>, Vol. 23, pp.&#160;121–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html">Online text</a>.</li>
<li>Greco, J. &amp; Sosa, E. 1999. <i>Blackwell Guide to Epistemology</i>, Blackwell Publishing.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Errol_Harris" title="Errol Harris">Harris, Errol E.</a> 1970. <i>Hypothesis And Perception</i>, George Allen and Unwin, London, Reprinted 2002 Routledge, London.</li>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Harwood, Sterling (1989). "Taking Skepticism Seriously – And In Context". <i>Philosophical Investigations</i> <b>12</b> (3): 223–233. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9205.1989.tb00275.x">10.1111/j.1467-9205.1989.tb00275.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Taking+Skepticism+Seriously+%93+And+In+Context&amp;rft.aufirst=Sterling&amp;rft.aulast=Harwood&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9205.1989.tb00275.x&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Investigations&amp;rft.pages=223-233&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=12" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Hay, Clare. 2008. <i>The Theory of Knowledge: A Coursebook</i>, The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780718830885" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7188-3088-5</a></li>
<li>Hawthorne, John. 2005. "The Case for Closure", <i>Contemporary Debates in Epistemology</i>, Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (ed.): 26–43.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_F._Hendricks" title="Vincent F. Hendricks">Hendricks, Vincent F</a>. 2006. <i>Mainstream and Formal Epistemology</i>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kant,_Immanuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant, Immanuel">Kant, Immanuel</a>. 1781. <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>.</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Morris_T._Keeton&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Morris T. Keeton (page does not exist)">Keeton, Morris T.</a> 1962. "Empiricism", in <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, pp.&#160;89–90.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard, Søren</a>. 1844. <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Fragments" title="Philosophical Fragments">Philosophical Fragments</a></i>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirkham" title="Richard Kirkham">Kirkham, Richard</a>. 1984. "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" <i>Mind</i>, 93.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Klein, Peter</a>. 1981. <i>Certainty: a Refutation of Skepticism</i>, Minneapolis, MN: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_E._Kyburg,_Jr." title="Henry E. Kyburg, Jr.">Kyburg, H.E.</a> 1961. <i>Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief</i>, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Korzybski" title="Alfred Korzybski">Korzybski, Alfred</a>. 1994 (1933). <i>Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics</i>, Fifth Edition. Ft. Worth, TX: Institute of General Semantics.</li>
<li><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">Lewis, David</a> (1996). "Elusive Knowledge". <i>Australian Journal of Philosophy</i> <b>74</b> (4): 549–67. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00048409612347521">10.1080/00048409612347521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Elusive+Knowledge&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.aulast=Lewis&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00048409612347521&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=549-67&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=74" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Morin" title="Edgar Morin">Morin, Edgar</a>. 1986. <i>La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance</i> (Method, 3rd volume&#160;: The knowledge of knowledge)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Morton" title="Adam Morton">Morton, Adam</a>. 2002. <i>A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge</i> (Third Edition) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1405100125" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-4051-0012-5</a></li>
<li>Nelson, Quee. 2007. <i>The Slightest Philosophy</i>, Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing, 296 pages.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilkka_Niiniluoto" title="Ilkka Niiniluoto">Niiniluoto, Ilkka</a>. 2002. <i>Critical Scientific Realism</i>, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl R.</a> 1972. <i>Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach</i>, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.</li>
<li>Preyer, G./Siebelt, F./Ulfig, A. 1994. <i>Language, Mind and Epistemology</i>, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand, Ayn</a>. 1979. <i>Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology</i>, New York: Meridian.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a>. 1912. <i>The Problems of Philosophy</i>, New York: Oxford University Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a>. 1940. <i>An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth</i>, Nottingham: Spokesman Books.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana, George</a>. 1923. <i><a href="/wiki/Scepticism_and_Animal_Faith" title="Scepticism and Animal Faith">Scepticism and Animal Faith</a></i>, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons – London: Constable and Co.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_Spir" class="mw-redirect" title="African Spir">Spir, African</a>. 1877. <i>Denken und Wirklichkeit: Versuch einer Erneuerung der kritischen Philosophie</i> (Thought and Reality: Attempt at a Renewal of Critical Philosophy), (Second Edition) Leipzig: J. G. Findel.</li>
<li><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Schiffer" title="Stephen Schiffer">Schiffer, Stephen</a> (1996). "Contextualist Solutions to Skepticism". <i>Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society</i> <b>96</b>: 317–33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Contextualist+Solutions+to+Skepticism&amp;rft.aufirst=Stephen&amp;rft.aulast=Schiffer&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Aristotelian+Society&amp;rft.pages=317-33&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=96" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Steup, Matthias. 2005. "Knowledge and Skepticism", <i>Contemporary Debates in Epistemology</i>, Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (eds.): 1–13.</li>
<li>Tomberlin, James (ed.). 1999. <i>Philosophical Perspectives 13, Epistemology</i>, Blackwell Publishing.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Turri, John (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/397/knowledge-and-the-norm-of-assertion--an-essay-in-philosophical-science"><i>Knowledge and the Norm of Assertion: An Essay in Philosophical Science. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Turri&amp;rft.btitle=Knowledge+and+the+Norm+of+Assertion%3A+An+Essay+in+Philosophical+Science.+Cambridge%3A+Open+Book+Publishers&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openbookpublishers.com%2Fproduct%2F397%2Fknowledge-and-the-norm-of-assertion--an-essay-in-philosophical-science&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein, Ludwig</a>. 1922. <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a> and <a href="/wiki/C.K._Ogden" class="mw-redirect" title="C.K. Ogden">C.K. Ogden</a> (trns.), Dover. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/tlph.html">Online text</a>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<dl>
<dt><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> articles</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/">Epistemology</a> by Matthias Steup.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/">Bayesian Epistemology</a> by William Talbott.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-evolutionary/">Evolutionary Epistemology</a> by Michael Bradie &amp; William Harms.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-epistemology/">Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science</a> by Elizabeth Anderson.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-naturalized/">Naturalized Epistemology</a> by Richard Feldman.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-social/">Social Epistemology</a> by Alvin Goldman.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue/">Virtue Epistemology</a> by John Greco.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-how/">Knowledge How</a> by Jeremy Fantl.</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Other links</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">London Philosophy Study Guide</a> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Ep&amp;Meth.htm">Epistemology &amp; Methodology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology">Epistemology</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/knowledge-how/">Knowledge-How</a> at Philpapers</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2374">Epistemology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/Epistemo">"Epistemology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpistemology&amp;rft.atitle=Epistemology&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2FEpistemo&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/What-Is-Epistemology.htm">What Is Epistemology?</a> – a brief introduction to the topic by Keith DeRose.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dostoevskiansmiles.blogspot.com/2008/10/justified-true-belief-and-critical.html">Justified True Belief and Critical Rationalism</a> by Mathew Toll</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20050128145134/http://www.galilean-library.org:80/int5.html">Epistemology Introduction, Part 1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20051222135250/http://www.galilean-library.org:80/int20.html">Part 2</a> by Paul Newall at the Galilean Library.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/clay/know.html"><i>Teaching Theory of Knowledge</i> (1986)</a> – Marjorie Clay (ed.), an electronic publication from The Council for Philosophical Studies.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43783">An Introduction to Epistemology</a> by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lI9-YgSzsEQ"><span class="plainlinks">A short film about epistemology, for beginners</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">Genetic epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representative_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Representative realism">Representative realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" title="Speculative reason">Speculative reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alethiology" title="Alethiology">Alethiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-epistemology" title="Meta-epistemology">Meta-epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Epistemology</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
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</tr>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><strong class="selflink">Epistemology</strong></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Concepts</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">Theory choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">Theory-ladenness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
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</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Metatheory_of_science" title="Category:Metatheory of science">Metatheory<br />
of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li>{<a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a>}</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Philosophy of</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">thermal and statistical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">Motion</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_environment" title="Philosophy of environment">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">Related topics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Epistemology</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a> by era</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
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<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Ancient</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurians</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Classical modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Late modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy_of_science" title="Portal:Philosophy of science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (Empirio-criticism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Rankean historical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Russian positivism (Empiriomonism)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />
in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry (1830s)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Heisenberg uncertainty principle (1927)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Epistemology</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism#Anthropology" title="Holism">Holism in anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positivist-related debate</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1890s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit"><i>Methodenstreit</i> (economics)</a></li>
<li>1909–1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1960s&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1980s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a></li>
<li>1990s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science Wars</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1830&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1848&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1869&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1879&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Idealism and Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1886&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i></li>
<li>1927&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i></li>
<li>1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i></li>
<li>2001&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1909&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i></li>
<li>1923&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i></li>
<li>1934&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i></li>
<li>1942&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i></li>
<li>1951&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i></li>
<li>1960&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i></li>
<li>1962&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i></li>
<li>1963&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i></li>
<li>1964&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i></li>
<li>1968&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas#Major_works" title="Jürgen Habermas">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i></li>
<li>1978&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson#Freelance_polemicist" title="E. P. Thompson">The Poverty of Theory</a></i></li>
<li>1980&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">The Scientific Image</a></i></li>
<li>1986&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/McCloskey_critique" title="McCloskey critique">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</td>
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</table>
</td>
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</table>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4070914-0">4070914-0</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00568521">00568521</a></span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologie" title="Epistemologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkenntnistheorie" title="Erkenntnistheorie – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9" title="نظرية المعر?ة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemoloch%C3%ADa" title="Epistemolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_del_conocimientu" title="Teoría del conocimientu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologiya" title="Epistemologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="জ?ঞানতত?ত?ব – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%ABn-sek-l%C5%ABn" title="Jīn-sek-lūn – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпи?темологи? – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Эпі?т?малогі? – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Эпі?т?малёгі? – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Епи?темологи? – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologie" title="Epistemologie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologija" title="Epistemologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologiezh" title="Epistemologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnozeologie" title="Gnozeologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemoleg" title="Epistemoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkendelsesteori" title="Erkendelsesteori – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkenntnistheorie" title="Erkenntnistheorie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemoloogia" title="Epistemoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γνωσιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolog%C3%ADa" title="Epistemología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciteorio" title="Sciteorio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="معر?ت‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89pist%C3%A9mologie" title="Épistémologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolox%C3%ADa" title="Epistemoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="知識論 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EC%8B%9D%EB%A1%A0" title="??론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իմա?աբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="ज?ञानमीमांसा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologija" title="Epistemologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologio" title="Epistemologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistomolohia" title="Epistomolohia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologi" title="Epistemologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eekkingarfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Þekkingarfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%94" title="תורת ההכרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89pist%C3%A9mologi" title="Épistémologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ეპისტემ?ლ?გი? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпи?темологи? – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolojia" title="Epistemolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гно?еологи? – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="//lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="?ານວິທະ?າ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolo%C4%A3ija" title="Epistemoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologija" title="Epistemologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologie" title="Epistemologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismeretelm%C3%A9let" title="Ismeretelmélet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Теорија на познание – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="വിജ?ഞാനശാസ?ത?രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologi" title="Epistemologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eipistemologie" title="Eipistemologie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AE%E1%80%85%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AE" title="အက်ပီစ?မ်မိုလော်ဂျီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennistheorie" title="Kennistheorie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प?रमाणशास?त?र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="?識論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Эпи?темологи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkjennelsesteori" title="Erkjennelsesteori – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannkjenningsteori" title="Sannkjenningsteori – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om"><a href="//om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ippistimooloojii" title="Ippistimooloojii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologiya" title="Epistemologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE" title="ਗਿਆਨ ਮੀਮਾਂਸਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%86_%D9%BE%DA%91%DA%BE%D8%AA" title="جانن پڑھت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="پوهنپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemalaji" title="Epistemalaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolog%C3%ACa" title="Epistemologìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennistheorie" title="Kennistheorie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologia" title="Epistemologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologie" title="Epistemologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Епі?темолоґі? – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпи?темологи? – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпи?темологи? – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><a href="//stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologie" title="Epistemologie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologjia" title="Epistemologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolugg%C3%ACa" title="Epistemoluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%B3ria_poznania" title="Teória poznania – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologija" title="Epistemologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%81%DB%95%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="مەعری?ەتناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Епи?темологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnoseologija" title="Gnoseologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietoteoria" title="Tietoteoria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologi" title="Epistemologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolohiya" title="Epistemolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவாய?வியல? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гно?еологи? – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="?าณวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="//tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Маърифатшино?ӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemoloji" title="Epistemoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Епі?темологі? – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علمیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_th%E1%BB%A9c_lu%E1%BA%ADn" title="Tri thức luận – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemoloogia" title="Epistemoloogia – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemolohiya" title="Epistemolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="עפיסטעמ?ל?גיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="知識論 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="知识论 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प?रमाणशास?त?र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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