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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Dialectic</h1>
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				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Dialect_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Dialect (disambiguation)">Dialect, Dialectal</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">Dielectric</a>.</div>
<p><b>Dialectic</b> or <b>dialectics</b> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαλεκτική</span>, <i>dialektikḗ</i>), also known as the <b>dialectical method</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> between two or more people holding different <a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">points of view</a> about a subject but wishing to establish the <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> through <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">reasoned</a> arguments. The term was popularized by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic dialogues">Socratic dialogues</a> but the act itself has been central to European and Indian philosophy since <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>The term dialectic is not synonymous with the term <a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">debate</a>. While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view, in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgment. Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent, proving one's argument correct, or proving the opponent's argument incorrect. Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a <a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">judge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">group consensus</a>. The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Concepts, like <i>"<a href="/wiki/Logos#Aristotle.27_rhetorical_logos" title="Logos">logos</a>"</i> or rational appeal, <i>"<a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a>"</i> or emotional appeal, and <i>"<a href="/wiki/Ethos#Rhetoric" title="Ethos">ethos</a>"</i> or ethical appeal, are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophists</a> taught <i><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" title="Arete (moral virtue)">aretē</a></i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀ?ετή</span>, <i>quality</i>, <i>excellence</i>) as the highest value, and the determinant of one's actions in life. The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory (motivation via speech) as a manner of demonstrating one's <i>aretē</i>. Oratory was taught as an art form, used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech; nonetheless, the Sophists taught the pupil to seek <i>aretē</i> in all endeavours, not solely in oratory.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> favoured <i>truth</i> as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion: ergo, <i>dialectic</i>. Socrates valued <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> (appealing to logic, not emotion) as the proper means for persuasion, the discovery of truth, and the determinant for one's actions. To Socrates, <i>truth</i>, not <i>aretē</i>, was the greater good, and each person should, above all else, seek truth to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Indosphere</a> (Greater India) and <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a> (Europe). These forms include the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu" title="Hindu">Hindu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hegelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelian">Hegelian</a> dialectics, <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pilpul" title="Pilpul">Talmudic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">Neo-orthodoxy</a>.</p>
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<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Principles"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Principles</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Western_dialectical_forms"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Western dialectical forms</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Classical_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Classical philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Socratic_dialogue"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Socratic dialogue</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Aristotle"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aristotle</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Medieval_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Modern_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Hegelian_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hegelian dialectic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Marxist_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Marxist dialectic</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Indian_forms_of_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Indian forms of dialectic</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Indian_continental_debate:_an_intra-_and_inter-Dharmic_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Indian continental debate: an intra- and inter-Dharmic dialectic</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Brahmana.2FVedic.2FHindu_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Brahmana/Vedic/Hindu dialectic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Jain_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Jain dialectic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Buddhist_dialectic"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Buddhist dialectic</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Dialectical_theology"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Dialectical theology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Dialectical_method_and_dualism"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Dialectical method and dualism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Criticisms"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Criticisms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Formalism"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Formalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Principles">Principles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Principles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The purpose of the dialectic method of reasoning is resolution of <a href="/wiki/Disagreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Disagreement">disagreement</a> through <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> discussion, and, ultimately, the search for truth.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> One way to proceed—the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>—is to show that a given <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> (with other admissions) leads to a <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradiction</a>; thus, forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a>). Another dialectical resolution of disagreement is by denying a <a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">presupposition</a> of the contending thesis and antithesis; thereby, proceeding to <i><a href="/wiki/Aufheben" title="Aufheben">sublation</a></i> (transcendence) to <i>synthesis</i>, a third thesis.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichtean</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>/Hegelian dialectics is based upon four concepts:</p>
<ol>
<li>Everything is transient and finite, existing in the medium of time.</li>
<li>Everything is composed of contradictions (opposing forces).</li>
<li>Gradual changes lead to crises, turning points when one force overcomes its opponent force (quantitative change leads to qualitative change).</li>
<li>Change is <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> (spiral), not circular (negation of the negation).<sup id="cite_ref-Mills2005_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills2005-7">[7]</a></sup></li>
</ol>
<p>The concept of <i>dialectic</i> (as a <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">unity of opposites</a>) existed in the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, who proposed that everything is in constant change, as a result of inner strife and opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Hence, the history of the dialectical method is the history of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Western_dialectical_forms">Western dialectical forms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Western dialectical forms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Classical_philosophy">Classical philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Classical philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, the ancient Greeks used the word "dialectic" to signify the logic of false appearance or semblance. To the Ancients, "it was nothing but the logic of illusion. It was a sophistic art of giving to one's ignorance, indeed even to one's intentional tricks, the outward appearance of truth, by imitating the thorough, accurate method which logic always requires, and by using its topic as a cloak for every empty assertion."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, dialectic (<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">διαλεκτική</span>) is a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments, advocating <i><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">theses</a>) and <i>counter-propositions</i> (<a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">antitheses</a>). The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant proposition, or of a synthesis, or a combination of the opposing assertions, or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p>Moreover, the term "dialectic" owes much of its prestige to its role in the philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, in the Greek <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a> period (5th to 4th centuries BCE). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> said that it was the pre-Socratic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> who invented dialectic, of which the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic dialectical method.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Socratic_dialogue">Socratic dialogue</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Socratic dialogue">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogue" title="Socratic dialogue">Socratic dialogue</a></div>
<p>In Plato's dialogues and other Socratic dialogues, Socrates attempts to examine someone's beliefs, at times even <a href="/wiki/First_principles" class="mw-redirect" title="First principles">first principles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> by which we all reason and argue. Socrates typically argues by cross-examining his interlocutor's claims and premises in order to draw out a <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradiction</a> or inconsistency among them. According to Plato, the rational detection of error amounts to finding the proof of the antithesis.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> However, important as this objective is, the principal aim of Socratic activity seems to be to improve the soul of his interlocutors, by freeing them from unrecognized errors.</p>
<p>For example, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro" title="Euthyphro">Euthyphro</a></i>, Socrates asks <a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_(prophet)" title="Euthyphro (prophet)">Euthyphro</a> to provide a definition of piety. Euthyphro replies that the pious is that which is loved by the gods. But, Socrates also has Euthyphro agreeing that the gods are quarrelsome and their quarrels, like human quarrels, concern objects of love or hatred. Therefore, Socrates reasons, at least one thing exists that certain gods love but other gods hate. Again, Euthyphro agrees. Socrates concludes that if Euthyphro's definition of piety is acceptable, then there must exist at least one thing that is both pious and impious (as it is both loved and hated by the gods)—which Euthyphro admits is absurd. Thus, Euthyphro is brought to a realization by this dialectical method that his definition of piety is not sufficiently meaningful.</p>
<p>According to the University of Chicago, dialectic can be defined as a, "mode of thought, or a philosophic medium, through which contradiction becomes a starting point (rather than a dead end) for contemplation"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Socrates proposed this form of dialectic through a Socratic method termed elenchus. To achieve the ultimate truth of opinions, hence dialectic, Socrates refuted propositions by proving his own statements true. In common cases, Socrates used enthymemes as the foundation of his argument. Discourse was applied to guide his reasoned arguments until the interlocutors had no other choice but to agree with him, conclusively contradicting their original theses. Therefore, Socrates, in result, would have reached ultimate truth.</p>
<p>For example, dialectic occurs between Socrates, the Sophist, Gorgias, and two men, Polus and Callicles in Plato's Gorgias. Because Socrates' ultimate goal was to reach true knowledge, he was even willing to change his own views in order to arrive at the truth. The fundamental goal of dialectic, in this instance, was to establish a precise definition of the subject (in this case, rhetoric) and with the use of argumentation and questioning, make the subject even more precise. In the Gorgias, Socrates reaches the truth by asking a series of questions and in return, receiving short, clear answers.</p>
<p>Socrates asks Gorgias if he who has learned carpentering is a carpenter, and if he who has learned music is a musician, and if he who has learned medicine is a physician, and so forth. Gorgias one way or another replies "yes," to all of these questions. Socrates then continues by asking Gorgias if he believes that a just man will always desire to do what is just and never intend to do injustice. Yet again, Gorgias replies, "yes." Socrates then brings up the fact that earlier in their conversation Gorgias stated that rhetoricians are just men. Gorgias agrees. In return, Socrates contradicts Gorgias' statements, because Gorgias had implied that if a rhetorician uses rhetoric for injustices, the teacher should not be at fault. If this were to occur, then a rhetorician would in fact not be a just man. Socrates discovered the inconsistency in Gorgias' statements and ends the excerpt by stating "there will be a great deal of discussion, before we get at the truth of all this."</p>
<p>This example demonstrates how dialectic is used as a method to maneuver people into contradicting their own theses. Reasoned argumentative discourse furthers the establishment of the truth. Dialectic, dissimilar to debates, naturally comes to an end. The ultimate truth will be arrived at and contradiction diminished.</p>
<p>There is another interpretation of the dialectic, as a method of intuition suggested in The Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Simon Blackburn writes that the dialectic in this sense is used to understand "the total process of enlightenment, whereby the philosopher is educated so as to achieve knowledge of the supreme good, the Form of the Good".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Aristotle">Aristotle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Aristotle">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Aristotle stresses that rhetoric is closely related to dialectic. He offers several formulas to describe this affinity between the two disciplines: first of all, rhetoric is said to be a “counterpart? (antistrophos) to dialectic (Rhet. I.1, 1354a1); (ii) it is also called an “outgrowth? (paraphues ti) of dialectic and the study of character (Rhet. I.2, 1356a25f.); finally, Aristotle says that rhetoric is part of dialectic and resembles it (Rhet. I.2, 1356a30f.). In saying that rhetoric is a counterpart to dialectic, Aristotle obviously alludes to Plato's Gorgias (464bff.), where rhetoric is ironically defined as a counterpart to cookery in the soul. Since, in this passage, Plato uses the word ‘antistrophos’ to designate an analogy, it is likely that Aristotle wants to express a kind of analogy too: what dialectic is for the (private or academic) practice of attacking and maintaining an argument, rhetoric is for the (public) practice of defending oneself or accusing an opponent.The analogy to dialectic has important implications for the status of rhetoric. Plato argued in his Gorgias that rhetoric cannot be an art (technê), since it is not related to a definite subject, while real arts are defined by their specific subjects, as e.g. medicine or shoemaking are defined by their products, i.e., health and shoes. <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></p>
<p><br /></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_philosophy">Medieval philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Medieval philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Dialectics (also called logic) was one of the three liberal arts taught in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval universities">medieval universities</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a>. The trivium also included <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herbermann_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herbermann-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
<p>Based mainly on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the first medieval philosopher to work on dialectics was <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> After him, many scholastic philosophers also made use of dialectics in their works, such as <a href="/wiki/Abelard" class="mw-redirect" title="Abelard">Abelard</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_of_Sherwood" title="William of Sherwood">William of Sherwood</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Garlandus_Compotista" title="Garlandus Compotista">Garlandus Compotista</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Burley" title="Walter Burley">Walter Burley</a>, Roger Swyneshed, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></p>
<p>This dialectic was formed as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>The Question to be determined</li>
<li>The principal objections to the question</li>
<li>An argument in favor of the Question, traditionally a single argument ("On the contrary...")</li>
<li>The determination of the Question after weighing the evidence. ("I answer that...")</li>
<li>The replies to each objection</li>
</ol>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Modern philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The concept of dialectics was given new life by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (following <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>), whose dialectically dynamic model of nature and of history made it, as it were, a fundamental aspect of the nature of reality (instead of regarding the contradictions into which dialectics leads as a sign of the sterility of the dialectical method, as <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> tended to do in his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> In the mid-19th century, the concept of "dialectic" was appropriated by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (see, for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" class="mw-redirect" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i>, published in 1867) and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> and retooled in a non-idealist manner. It would also become a crucial part of later representations of Marxism as a philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a>. These representations often contrasted dramatically<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> and led to vigorous debate among different Marxist groupings (leading some prominent Marxists to give up on the idea of dialectics completely)<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Thus this concept has played a prominent role on the world stage and in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_world" title="History of the world">world history</a>. In contemporary <a href="/wiki/Polemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemics">polemics</a>, "dialectics" may also refer to an understanding of how we can or should perceive the world (<a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>); an assertion that the nature of the world outside one's perception is interconnected, contradictory, and dynamic (<a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>); or it can refer to a method of presentation of ideas and conclusions (<a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a>). According to Hegel, "dialectic" is the method by which human history unfolds; that is to say, history progresses as a dialectical process.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Hegelian_dialectic">Hegelian dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Hegelian dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<td style="padding:0.4em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg" class="image" title="Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist"><img alt="Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/185px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg" width="185" height="249" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/278px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/370px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="640" /></a>
<div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a></div>
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<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></th>
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<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">Forerunners</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Böhme</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Schelling">Schelling</a></li>
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<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">Successors</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Feuerbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
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<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">Principal <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_bibliography" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography">works</a></th>
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<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Science_of_Logic" title="Science of Logic">Science of Logic</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Philosophical_Sciences" title="Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a></i></li>
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<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_Religion" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion">Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">Lectures on the Philosophy of History</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_History_of_Philosophy" title="Lectures on the History of Philosophy">Lectures on the History of Philosophy</a></i></li>
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<th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">Schools</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialectic#Hegelian_dialectics" title="Dialectic">dialectics</a>)</li>
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<p>Hegelian dialectic, usually presented in a threefold manner, was stated by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Moritz_Chalyb%C3%A4us" title="Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus">Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus</a> as comprising three dialectical stages of development: a <a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">thesis</a>, giving rise to its reaction, an <a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">antithesis</a>, which contradicts or negates the thesis, and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a <a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">synthesis</a>. Although this model is often named after Hegel, he himself never used that specific formulation. Hegel ascribed that terminology to Kant.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Carrying on Kant's work, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a> greatly elaborated on the synthesis model, and popularized it.</p>
<p>On the other hand, Hegel did use a three-valued logical model that is very similar to the antithesis model, but Hegel's most usual terms were: Abstract-Negative-Concrete. Hegel used this writing model as a backbone to accompany his points in many of his works.</p>
<p>The formula, thesis-antithesis-synthesis, does not explain why the thesis requires an antithesis. However, the formula, abstract-negative-concrete, suggests a flaw, or perhaps an incomplete-ness, in any initial thesis—it is too abstract and lacks the negative of trial, error, and experience. For Hegel, the concrete, the synthesis, the absolute, must always pass through the phase of the negative, in the journey to completion, that is, mediation. This is the essence of what is popularly called Hegelian Dialectics.</p>
<p>According to the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"Fichte introduced into German philosophy the three-step of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, using these three terms. Schelling took up this terminology. <i>Hegel did not.</i> He never once used these three terms together to designate three stages in an argument or account in any of his books. And they do not help us understand his <i>Phenomenology</i>, his <i>Logic</i>, or his philosophy of history; they impede any open-minded comprehension of what he does by forcing it into a scheme which was available to him and which he deliberately spurned [...] The mechanical formalism [...] Hegel derides expressly and at some length in the preface to the <i>Phenomenology.</i><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Kaufmann also cites Hegel's criticism of the triad model commonly misattributed to him, adding that "the only place where Hegel uses the three terms together occurs in his lectures on the history of philosophy, on the last page but one of the section on Kant—where Hegel roundly reproaches Kant for having 'everywhere posited thesis, antithesis, synthesis'".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<p>To describe the activity of overcoming the negative, Hegel also often used the term <a href="/wiki/Aufheben" title="Aufheben"><i>Aufhebung</i></a>, variously translated into English as "sublation" or "overcoming," to conceive of the working of the dialectic. Roughly, the term indicates preserving the useful portion of an idea, thing, society, etc., while moving beyond its limitations. (<a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>'s preferred French translation of the term was <i>relever</i>.)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the <a href="/wiki/Science_of_Logic" title="Science of Logic"><i>Logic</i></a>, for instance, Hegel describes a dialectic of <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>: first, existence must be posited as pure Being (<i>Sein</i>); but pure Being, upon examination, is found to be indistinguishable from Nothing (<i>Nichts</i>). When it is realized that what is coming into being is, at the same time, also returning to nothing (in life, for example, one's living is also a dying), both Being and Nothing are united as Becoming.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup></p>
<p>As in the Socratic dialectic, Hegel claimed to proceed by making implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage. For Hegel, the whole of history is one tremendous dialectic, major stages of which chart a progression from self-alienation as <a href="/wiki/Master-slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master-slave dialectic">slavery</a> to self-unification and realization as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rational_state&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Rational state (page does not exist)">rational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional state">constitutional state</a> of free and equal citizens. The Hegelian dialectic cannot be mechanically applied for any chosen thesis. Critics argue that the selection of any antithesis, other than the logical negation of the thesis, is subjective. Then, if the logical negation is used as the antithesis, there is no rigorous way to derive a synthesis. In practice, when an antithesis is selected to suit the user's subjective purpose, the resulting "contradictions" are <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a>, not logical, and the resulting synthesis is not rigorously defensible against a multitude of other possible syntheses. The problem with the Fichtean "thesis–antithesis–synthesis" model is that it implies that contradictions or negations come from outside of things. Hegel's point is that they are inherent in and internal to things. This conception of dialectics derives ultimately from <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>.</p>
<p>Hegel stated that the purpose of dialectics is "to study things in their own being and movement and thus to demonstrate the finitude of the partial categories of understanding."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></p>
<p>One important dialectical principle for Hegel is the transition from quantity to quality, which he terms the Measure. The measure is the qualitative quantum, the quantum is the existence of quantity.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup></p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>"The identity between quantity and quality, which is found in Measure, is at first only implicit, and not yet explicitly realised. In other words, these two categories, which unite in Measure, each claim an independent authority. On the one hand, the quantitative features of existence may be altered, without affecting its quality. On the other hand, this increase and diminution, immaterial though it be, has its limit, by exceeding which the quality suffers change. [...] But if the quantity present in measure exceeds a certain limit, the quality corresponding to it is also put in abeyance. This however is not a negation of quality altogether, but only of this definite quality, the place of which is at once occupied by another. This process of measure, which appears alternately as a mere change in quantity, and then as a sudden revulsion of quantity into quality, may be envisaged under the figure of a nodal (knotted) line".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>As an example, Hegel mentions the states of aggregation of water: "Thus the temperature of water is, in the first place, a point of no consequence in respect of its liquidity: still with the increase or diminution of the temperature of the liquid water, there comes a point where this state of cohesion suffers a qualitative change, and the water is converted into steam or ice".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> As other examples Hegel mentions the reaching of a point where a single additional grain makes a heap of wheat; or where the bald-tail is produced, if we continue plucking out single hairs.</p>
<p>Another important principle for Hegel is the negation of the negation, which he also terms <i>Aufhebung</i> (sublation): Something is only what it is in its relation to another, but by the negation of the negation this something incorporates the other into itself. The dialectical movement involves two moments that negate each other, something and its other. As a result of the negation of the negation, "something becomes its other; this other is itself something; therefore it likewise becomes an other, and so on ad infinitum".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Something in its passage into other only joins with itself, it is self-related.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> In becoming there are two moments:<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> coming-to-be and ceasing-to-be: by sublation, i.e., negation of the negation, being passes over into nothing, it ceases to be, but something new shows up, is coming to be. What is sublated (<i>aufgehoben</i>) on the one hand ceases to be and is put to an end, but on the other hand it is preserved and maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> In dialectics, a totality transforms itself; it is self-related, then self-forgetful, relieving the original tension.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Marxist_dialectic">Marxist dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Marxist dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Frankfurt_School" title="Category:Frankfurt School">a series</a> on the</td>
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<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0 0.2em 0.4em;font-size:150%;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></th>
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<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"><a href="/wiki/File:AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png" class="image" title="Theorists of the Frankfurt School"><img alt="Theorists of the Frankfurt School" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png/250px-AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png" width="250" height="163" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png/375px-AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png/500px-AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="696" /></a></td>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#aaa 1px solid;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;padding:0.2em;">Major works</th>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.8em;;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Reason_and_Revolution" title="Reason and Revolution">Reason and Revolution</a><br />
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the<br />
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<a href="/wiki/Eclipse_of_Reason_(Horkheimer)" title="Eclipse of Reason (Horkheimer)">Eclipse of Reason</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Escape_from_Freedom" title="Escape from Freedom">Escape from Freedom</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Minima_Moralia" title="Minima Moralia">Minima Moralia</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Eros_and_Civilization" title="Eros and Civilization">Eros and Civilization</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Negative_Dialectics" title="Negative Dialectics">Negative Dialectics</a><br />
<div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Structural_Transformation_of_the_Public_Sphere" title="The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere">The Structural Transformation<br />
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<a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Communicative_Action" title="The Theory of Communicative Action">The Theory of Communicative Action</a></td>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#aaa 1px solid;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;padding:0.2em;">Notable theorists</th>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor Adorno</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Pollock" title="Friedrich Pollock">Friedrich Pollock</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Leo_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Leo Löwenthal">Leo Löwenthal</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Alfred_Schmidt_(philosopher)" title="Alfred Schmidt (philosopher)">Alfred Schmidt</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Axel_Honneth" title="Axel Honneth">Axel Honneth</a> <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Kracauer" title="Siegfried Kracauer">Siegfried Kracauer</a></td>
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<th style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#aaa 1px solid;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;padding:0.2em;">Important concepts</th>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <strong class="selflink">Dialectic</strong>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Praxis_(process)" title="Praxis (process)">Praxis</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Psychoanalysis</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Antipositivism</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Popular_culture_studies" title="Popular culture studies">Popular culture</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Privatism" title="Privatism">Privatism</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Non-identity</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Communicative_rationality" title="Communicative rationality">Communicative rationality</a><br />
<a href="/wiki/Legitimation_crisis" title="Legitimation crisis">Legitimation crisis</a></td>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> proposed that G.F. Hegel had rendered philosophy too abstractly <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">ideal</a>:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>The mystification which dialectic suffers in Hegel's hands, by no means prevents him from being the first to present its general form of working in a comprehensive and conscious manner. With him it is standing on its head. It must be turned right side up again, if you would discover the rational kernel within the mystical shell.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In contradiction to Hegelian idealism, Karl Marx presented <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a> (Marxist dialectic):</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>My dialectic method is not only different from the Hegelian, but is its direct opposite. To Hegel, the life-process of the human brain, i.e. the process of thinking, which, under the name of 'the Idea', he even transforms into an independent subject, is the <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">demiurgos</a> of the real world, and the real world is only the external, phenomenal form of 'the Idea'. With me, on the contrary, the ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In Marxism, the dialectical method of historical study became intertwined with <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, the school of thought exemplified by the works of Marx, Engels, and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>. In the USSR, under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, Marxist dialectics became "diamat" (short for dialectical materialism), a theory emphasizing the primacy of the material way of life; social "praxis" over all forms of social consciousness; and the secondary, dependent character of the "ideal". The term "dialectical materialism" was coined by the 19th-century social theorist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dietzgen" title="Joseph Dietzgen">Joseph Dietzgen</a> who used the theory to explain the nature of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and social development. The original populariser of Marxism in Russia, <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a> used the terms "dialectical materialism" and "historical materialism" interchangeably. For Lenin, the primary feature of Marx's "dialectical materialism" (Lenin's term) was its application of materialist philosophy to history and social sciences. Lenin's main input in the philosophy of dialectical materialism was his theory of reflection, which presented human consciousness as a dynamic reflection of the objective material world that fully shapes its contents and structure. Later, Stalin's works on the subject established a rigid and formalistic division of Marxist–Leninist theory in the dialectical materialism and historical materialism parts. While the first was supposed to be the key method and theory of the philosophy of nature, the second was the Soviet version of the philosophy of history.</p>
<p>A dialectical method was fundamental to Marxist politics, e.g., the works of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Korsch" title="Karl Korsch">Karl Korsch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Luk%C3%A1cs" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Lukács">Georg Lukács</a> and certain members of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>. Soviet academics, notably <a href="/wiki/Evald_Ilyenkov" title="Evald Ilyenkov">Evald Ilyenkov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaid_Orudzhev" title="Zaid Orudzhev">Zaid Orudzhev</a>, continued pursuing unorthodox philosophic study of Marxist dialectics; likewise in the West, notably the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bertell_Ollman" title="Bertell Ollman">Bertell Ollman</a> at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>.</p>
<p>Friedrich Engels proposed that Nature is dialectical, thus, in <a href="/wiki/Anti-D%C3%BChring" title="Anti-Dühring">Anti-Dühring</a> he said that the negation of negation is:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>A very simple process, which is taking place everywhere and every day, which any child can understand as soon as it is stripped of the veil of mystery in which it was enveloped by the old <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Nature" title="Dialectics of Nature">Dialectics of Nature</a></i>, Engels said:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>Probably the same gentlemen who up to now have decried the transformation of quantity into quality as <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> and incomprehensible <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">transcendentalism</a> will now declare that it is indeed something quite self-evident, trivial, and commonplace, which they have long employed, and so they have been taught nothing new. But to have formulated for the first time in its universally valid form a general law of development of Nature, society, and thought, will always remain an act of historic importance.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Marxist dialectics is exemplified in <i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" class="mw-redirect" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i> (Capital), which outlines two central theories: (i) surplus value and (ii) the materialist conception of history; Marx explains dialectical materialism:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>In its rational form, it is a scandal and abomination to <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisdom</a> and its doctrinaire professors, because it includes in its comprehension an affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same time, also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and revolutionary.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a> is the central contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics, because of its central role in the social and political lives of a society. Nonetheless, Marx and Marxists developed the concept of class struggle to comprehend the dialectical contradictions between mental and manual labor, and between town and country. Hence, philosophic contradiction is central to the development of dialectics&#160;–  the progress from quantity to quality, the acceleration of gradual social change; the negation of the initial development of the <i>status quo</i>; the negation of that negation; and the high-level recurrence of features of the original <i>status quo</i>. In the USSR, Progress Publishers issued anthologies of dialectical materialism by Lenin, wherein he also quotes Marx and Engels:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>As the most comprehensive and profound doctrine of development, and the richest in content, Hegelian dialectics was considered by Marx and Engels the greatest achievement of classical German philosophy.... "The great basic thought", Engels writes, "that the world is not to be comprehended as a complex of ready-made things, but as a complex of processes, in which the things, apparently stable no less than their mind images in our heads, the concepts, go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being and passing away... this great fundamental thought has, especially since the time of Hegel, so thoroughly permeated ordinary consciousness that, in its generality, it is now scarcely ever contradicted.</p>
<p>But, to acknowledge this fundamental thought in words, and to apply it in reality in detail to each domain of investigation, are two different things.... For dialectical philosophy nothing is final, absolute, sacred. It reveals the transitory character of everything and in everything; nothing can endure before it, except the uninterrupted process of becoming and of passing away, of endless ascendancy from the lower to the higher. And dialectical philosophy, itself, is nothing more than the mere reflection of this process in the thinking brain." Thus, according to Marx, dialectics is "the science of the general laws of motion both of the external world and of human thought".<sup id="cite_ref-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Lenin describes his dialectical understanding of the concept of <i>development</i>:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>A development that repeats, as it were, stages that have already been passed, but repeats them in a different way, on a higher basis ("the negation of the negation"), a development, so to speak, that proceeds in spirals, not in a straight line; a development by leaps, catastrophes, and revolutions; "breaks in continuity"; the transformation of quantity into quality; inner impulses towards development, imparted by the contradiction and conflict of the various forces and tendencies acting on a given body, or within a given phenomenon, or within a given society; the interdependence and the closest and indissoluble connection between all aspects of any phenomenon (history constantly revealing ever new aspects), a connection that provides a uniform, and universal process of motion, one that follows definite laws&#160;–  these are some of the features of dialectics as a doctrine of development that is richer than the conventional one.<sup id="cite_ref-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Indian_forms_of_dialectic">Indian forms of dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Indian forms of dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Indian_continental_debate:_an_intra-_and_inter-Dharmic_dialectic">Indian continental debate: an intra- and inter-Dharmic dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Indian continental debate: an intra- and inter-Dharmic dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Anacker (2005: p.&#160;20), in the introduction to his translation of seven works by the Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 4th century), a famed <a href="/wiki/Dialectician" title="Dialectician">dialectician</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>, contextualizes the prestige of dialectic and cut-throat debate in classical India and makes references to the possibly apocryphal story of the banishment of <a href="/wiki/Moheyan" title="Moheyan">Moheyan</a> post-debate with <a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalaśīla</a> (fl. 713–763):</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Philosophical debating was in classical India often a spectator-sport, much as contests of poetry-improvisation were in Germany in its High Middle Ages, and as they still are in the Telugu country today. The king himself was often the judge at these debates, and loss to an opponent could have serious consequences. To take an atrociously extreme example, when the Tamil Śaivite Ñ?nasambandar N?yan?r defeated the Jain ?c?ryas in Madurai before the P?ṇ?ya King M?ravarman Avaniśūl?mani (620-645) this debate is said to have resulted in the impalement of 8000 Jains, an event still celebrated in the Mīn?ksi Temple of Madurai today. Usually, the results were not so drastic; they could mean formal recognition by the defeated side of the superiority of the winning party, forced conversions, or, as in the case of the <i><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Lhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Lhasa">Council of Lhasa</a></i>, which was conducted by Indians, banishment of the losers.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Brahmana.2FVedic.2FHindu_dialectic">Brahmana/Vedic/Hindu dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Brahmana/Vedic/Hindu dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></div>
<p>While Western philosophy traces dialectics to ancient Greek thought of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, the idea of tension between two opposing forces leading to synthesis is much older and present in Hindu Philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-ErnestGreer2009_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ErnestGreer2009-56">[56]</a></sup> Indian philosophy, for the most part subsumed within the <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>, has an ancient tradition of dialectic polemics. The two complements, "<a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">purusha</a>" (the active cause) and the "<a href="/wiki/Prakriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakriti">prakriti</a>" (the passive nature) brings everything into existence. They follow the "rta", the <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> (Universal Law of Nature).</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Jain_dialectic">Jain dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Jain dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syadvada" class="mw-redirect" title="Syadvada">Syadvada</a></div>
<p>Anekantavada and Syadvada are the sophisticated dialectic traditions developed by the Jains to arrive at truth. As per <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Jain doctrine of Anekantavada states that an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and, as such, they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to the inherent limitations of being human. Only the <a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" title="Kevala Jnana">Kevalis</a>—the omniscient beings—can comprehend the object in all its aspects and manifestations, and that all others are capable of knowing only a part of it. Consequently, no one view can claim to represent the absolute truth. According to Jains, the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason.<sup id="cite_ref-Duli_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duli-59">[59]</a></sup> Thus one finds in the <a href="/wiki/Category:Jain_texts" title="Category:Jain texts">Jain texts</a>, deliberative exhortations on any subject in all its facts, may they be constructive or obstructive, inferential or analytical, enlightening or destructive.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>Sy?dv?da is a theory of conditioned predication that provides an expression to anek?nta by recommending that epithet <i>Sy?d</i> be attached to every expression.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> Sy?dv?da is not only an extension of Anek?nta <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force. The Sanskrit etymological root of the term Sy?d is "perhaps" or "maybe", but in context of sy?dv?da, it means "in some ways" or "from a perspective." As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term "sy?t" should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative view points or propositions, it is known as theory of conditioned predication. These seven propositions also known as <a href="/wiki/Saptabhangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptabhangi">saptabhangi</a> are:<sup id="cite_ref-grimes_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grimes-63">[63]</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-asti</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is"</li>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-n?sti</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is not"</li>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-asti-n?sti</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is and it is not"</li>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-asti-avaktavyaḥ</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is and it is indescribable"</li>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-n?sti-avaktavyaḥ</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is not and it is indescribable"</li>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-asti-n?sti-avaktavyaḥ</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable"</li>
<li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none"><i><b>sy?d-avaktavyaḥ</b></i></span>: "in some ways it is indescribable"</li>
</ol>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Buddhist_dialectic">Buddhist dialectic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Buddhist dialectic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a></div>
<p>Buddhism has developed sophisticated, and sometimes highly institutionalized traditions of dialectics during its long history. <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> University, and later the Gelugpa Buddhism of Tibet, are examples. The historical development and clarification of Buddhist doctrine and <a href="/wiki/Polemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemics">polemics</a>, through dialectics and formal debate, is well documented. <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> doctrine was rigorously critiqued (though not ultimately refuted) in the 2nd century by <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>, whose uncompromisingly logical approach to the realisation of truth, became the basis for the development of a vital stream of Buddhist thought. This dialectical approach of Buddhism, to the elucidation and articulation of an account of the Cosmos as the truth it really is, became known as the Perfection of Wisdom and was later developed by other notable thinkers, such as <a href="/wiki/Dignaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignaga">Dignaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> (between 500 and 700). The dialectical method of truth-seeking is evident throughout the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Tantric Buddhism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trisong_Detsen" title="Trisong Detsen">Trisong Detsen</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Je Tsongkhapa</a>, championed the value of dialectic and of formalised training in debate in Tibet.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Dialectical_theology">Dialectical theology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Dialectical theology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">Neo-orthodoxy</a>, in Europe also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology,<sup id="cite_ref-BR1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR1-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BR2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR2-65">[65]</a></sup> is an approach to <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> that was developed in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> (1914–1918). It is characterized as a reaction against doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th-century</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberal theology</a> and a more positive reevaluation of the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, much of which had been in decline (especially in western Europe) since the late <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MW_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW-66">[66]</a></sup> It is primarily associated with two <a href="/wiki/Swiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss">Swiss</a> professors and pastors, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> (1886–1968) and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a> (1899–1966),<sup id="cite_ref-BR1_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR1-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BR2_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR2-65">[65]</a></sup> even though Barth himself expressed his unease in the use of the term.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Dialectical_method_and_dualism">Dialectical method and dualism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Dialectical method and dualism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Another way to understand dialectics is to view it as a method of thinking to overcome formal <a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> For example, formal dualism regards the opposites as mutually exclusive entities, whilst monism finds each to be an <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenon" title="Epiphenomenon">epiphenomenon</a> of the other. Dialectical thinking rejects both views. The dialectical method requires focus on both at the same time. It looks for a transcendence of the opposites entailing a leap of the imagination to a higher level, which (1) provides justification for rejecting both alternatives as false and/or (2) helps elucidate a real but previously veiled integral relationship between apparent opposites that have been kept apart and regarded as distinct. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Superposition_principle" title="Superposition principle">superposition principle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> can be explained using the dialectical method of thinking—likewise the example below from <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical biology">dialectical biology</a>. Such examples showing the relationship of the dialectic method of thinking to the scientific method to a large part negates the criticism of Popper (see text below) that the two are mutually exclusive. The dialectic method also examines false alternatives presented by formal dualism (materialism vs idealism; rationalism vs empiricism; mind vs body, etc.) and looks for ways to transcend the opposites and form synthesis. In the dialectical method, both have something in common, and understanding of the parts requires understanding their relationship with the whole system. The dialectical method thus views the whole of reality as an evolving process.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticisms">Criticisms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Criticisms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Some philosophers have offered criticisms of dialectic, and hostility and receptivity to dialectics divided 20th-century Anglo-American philosophy from the so-called "continental" tradition, a divide that only a few contemporary philosophers (amongst them, <a href="/wiki/G.H._von_Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="G.H. von Wright">G.H. von Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Paul Ricœur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>) have ventured to bridge.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<p>Dialectics has become central to "Continental" philosophy, but it plays no part in "Anglo-American" philosophy. In other words, on the continent of Europe, dialectics has entered intellectual culture as what might be called a legitimate part of thought and philosophy, whereas in America and Britain, the dialectic plays no discernible part in the intellectual culture, which instead tends toward <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>. A prime example of the European tradition is <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Dialectical_Reason" title="Critique of Dialectical Reason">Critique of Dialectical Reason</a></i>, which is very different from the works of Popper, whose philosophy was for a time highly influential in the UK where he resided (see below). Sartre states:</p>
<dl>
<dd>"<a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, addresses itself to experience in order to discover there concrete syntheses. It can conceive of these syntheses only within a moving, dialectical totalisation, which is nothing else but history or—from the strictly cultural point of view adopted here—'philosophy-becoming-the world'."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></dd>
</dl>
<p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> has attacked the dialectic repeatedly. In 1937 he wrote and delivered a paper entitled "What Is Dialectic?" in which he attacked the dialectical method for its willingness "to put up with contradictions".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Popper concluded the essay with these words: "The whole development of dialectic should be a warning against the dangers inherent in philosophical system-building. It should remind us that <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> should not be made a basis for any sort of scientific system and that philosophers should be much more modest in their claims. One task which they can fulfill quite usefully is the study of the critical <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">methods of science</a>" (Ibid., p.&#160;335).</p>
<p>In chapter 12 of volume 2 of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> (1944; 5th rev. ed., 1966) Popper unleashed a famous attack on Hegelian dialectics, in which he held that Hegel's thought (unjustly, in the view of some philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup>) was to some degree responsible for facilitating the rise of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> in Europe by encouraging and justifying <a href="/wiki/Epistemology#Irrationalism" title="Epistemology">irrationalism</a>. In section 17 of his 1961 "addenda" to <i>The Open Society</i>, entitled "Facts, Standards and Truth: A Further Criticism of Relativism," Popper refused to moderate his criticism of the Hegelian dialectic, arguing that it "played a major role in the downfall of <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">the liberal movement in Germany</a>,... by contributing to <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a> and to an identification of might and right, encouraged <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> modes of thought. &#160;.&#160;.&#160;. [and] undermined and eventually lowered the traditional standards of intellectual responsibility and honesty".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Formalism">Formalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Formalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logic_and_dialectic" title="Logic and dialectic">Logic and dialectic</a></div>
<p>In the past few decades, European and American logicians have attempted to provide mathematical foundations for dialectical logic or <a href="/wiki/Argument_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument (logic)">argument</a>. There had been pre-formal treatises on argument and dialectic, from authors such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a> (<i>The Uses of Argument</i>), <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a> (<i>Dialectics</i>), and van Eemeren and Grootendorst (<a href="/wiki/Pragma-dialectics" title="Pragma-dialectics">Pragma-dialectics</a>). One can include the communities of <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">paraconsistent logic</a>. However, building on theories of <a href="/wiki/Defeasible_reasoning" title="Defeasible reasoning">defeasible reasoning</a> (see <a href="/wiki/John_L._Pollock" title="John L. Pollock">John L. Pollock</a>), systems have been built that define well-formedness of arguments, rules governing the process of introducing arguments based on fixed assumptions, and rules for shifting burden. Many of these logics appear in the special area of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_law" title="Artificial intelligence and law">artificial intelligence and law</a>, though the computer scientists' interest in formalizing dialectic originates in a desire to build <a href="/wiki/Decision_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision support">decision support</a> and computer-supported collaborative work systems.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic_process_vs._dialogic_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectic process vs. dialogic process">Dialectic process vs. dialogic process</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_behavioral_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical behavioral therapy">Dialectical behavioral therapy</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Relational_dialectics" title="Relational dialectics">Relational dialectics</a></li>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). <i>Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student</i> (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p.&#160;1. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195115420" title="Special:BookSources/9780195115420">9780195115420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+P.+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Corbett&amp;rft.au=Robert+J.+Connors&amp;rft.btitle=Classical+Rhetoric+For+the+Modern+Student&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780195115420&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). <i>Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student</i> (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p.&#160;18. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195115420" title="Special:BookSources/9780195115420">9780195115420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+P.+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Corbett&amp;rft.au=Robert+J.+Connors&amp;rft.btitle=Classical+Rhetoric+For+the+Modern+Student&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9780195115420&amp;rft.pages=18&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a>, 449B: "Socrates: Would you be willing then, Gorgias, to continue the discussion as we are now doing [Dialectic], by way of question and answer, and to put off to another occasion the (emotional) speeches [Rhetoric] that [the Sophist] Polus began?"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinto, R. C. (2001). <i>Argument, inference and dialectic: collected papers on informal logic</i>. Argumentation library, vol. 4. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. pp. 138–139.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eemeren, F. H. v. (2003). <i>Anyone who has a view: theoretical contributions to the study of argumentation</i>. Argumentation library, vol. 8. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. p. 92.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Review of Aenesidemus" ("<i>Rezension des Aenesidemus</i>", 1794). Trans. Daniel Breazeale. In <cite class="citation book">Breazeale, Daniel; Fichte, Johann (1993). <i>Fichte: Early Philosophical Writings</i>. Cornell University Press. p.&#160;63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.au=Fichte%2C+Johann&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rft.aulast=Breazeale&amp;rft.btitle=Fichte%3A+Early+Philosophical+Writings&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=63&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mills2005-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mills2005_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jon Mills (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zglsKFJdshMC&amp;pg=PA159"><i>Treating attachment pathology</i></a>. Jason Aronson. pp.&#160;159–166. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7657-0132-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7657-0132-9">978-0-7657-0132-9</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.au=Jon+Mills&amp;rft.btitle=Treating+attachment+pathology&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzglsKFJdshMC%26pg%3DPA159&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7657-0132-9&amp;rft.pages=159-166&amp;rft.pub=Jason+Aronson&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbermann, C. G. (1913) The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press, inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sH4qAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA160">Page 160</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard Ll. Williams, <i>Hegel, Heraclitus, and Marx's Dialectic</i>. Harvester Wheatsheaf 1989. 256 pages. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0745005276" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-7450-0527-6</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Denton Jaques Snider, Ancient European Philosophy: The History of Greek Philosophy Psychologically Treated. Sigma publishing co. 1903. 730 pages. Pages 116-119.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassin, Barbara (ed.), <i>Vocabulaire européen des philosophies</i> [Paris: Le Robert &amp; Seuil, 2004], p. 306, trans. M.K. Jensen</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, A 61</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer, A. J., &amp; O'Grady, J. (1992). <i>A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations</i>. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. p. 484.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McTaggart, J. M. E. (1964). A commentary on Hegel's logic. New York: Russell &amp; Russell. p. 11</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laertius">Diogenes Laertius</a>, IX 25ff and VIII 57.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Vlastos" title="Gregory Vlastos">Vlastos, G.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myles_Burnyeat" title="Myles Burnyeat">Burnyeat, M.</a> (eds.) (1994), <i>Socratic Studies</i>, Cambridge UP, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521447356" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-44735-6</a>, Ch. 1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, K. (2003) (Title&#160;???)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies, Volume 1, London, Routledge, p. 133.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn, Simon. 1996. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rapp (2010). Aristotle's Rhetoric. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abelson, P. (1965). The seven liberal arts; a study in mediæval culture. New York: Russell &amp; Russell. Page 82.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hyman, A., &amp; Walsh, J. J. (1983). Philosophy in the Middle Ages: the Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. Page 164.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adler, Mortimer Jerome (2000). "Dialectic". Routledge. Page 4. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415225507" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-22550-7</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Herbermann-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herbermann_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbermann, C. G. (1913). The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press, inc. Page 760–764.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dA0YGAD1cQcC&amp;pg=PA44&amp;lpg=PA44&amp;dq=dialectics+in+Boethius&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=_HccRhfdjX&amp;sig=-lqZuRDK4jXLpWiN8-X8Rn36F3o&amp;hl=es&amp;ei=KGv0S_L6J4P-8AaZs-zNDQ&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=5&amp;ved=0CDYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;q=dialectics%20in%20Boethius&amp;f=false">From topic to tale: logic and narrativity in the Middle Ages</a>, by Eugene Vance,p.43-45</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia: Peter Abelard"</a>. Newadvent.org. 1907-03-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+Peter+Abelard&amp;rft.date=1907-03-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F01036b.htm&amp;rft.pub=Newadvent.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f3uMdwDVvL8C&amp;pg=PA70&amp;lpg=PA70&amp;dq=Dialectic+in+william+of+sherwood&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=DgQ7rzGOrB&amp;sig=7KAHsosojbyBiA_Fe6KckbL_zlM&amp;hl=es&amp;ei=FGX0S8rTAYL68Aar5oijBQ&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=dialectical&amp;f=false">William of Sherwood's Introduction to logic</a>, by Norman Kretzmann,p.69-102</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7mcPcSuUa8EC&amp;pg=RA1-PA198&amp;lpg=RA1-PA198&amp;dq=Garlandus+Compotista+and+Dialectic+in+the+Eleventh+and+Twelfth+Centuries&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=XkXFFyOASE&amp;sig=bH4YzmizXsgyd2LWo-QjTT5FB4o&amp;hl=es&amp;ei=F2b0S8eiB8H-8AbhrMCyAw&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=4&amp;ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&amp;q=Garlandus%20Compotista%20and%20Dialectic%20in%20the%20Eleventh%20and%20Twelfth%20Centuries&amp;f=false">A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy</a>, by Peter Dronke,p.198</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UnW7AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA11&amp;lpg=PA11&amp;dq=William+of+Ockham+dialectical+materialism&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=GRVgP3JXdO&amp;sig=KWQjQf8z5s0VMgVf5sqjIkWZgpk&amp;hl=es&amp;ei=Mmn0S4bqHMT38AablKj6Ag&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=8&amp;ved=0CEgQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&amp;q=William%20of%20Ockham%20dialectical%20materialism&amp;f=false">Medieval literary politics: shapes of ideology</a>, by Sheila Delany,p.11</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Thomas Aquinas"</a>. Newadvent.org. 1907-03-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+St.+Thomas+Aquinas&amp;rft.date=1907-03-01&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F14663b.htm&amp;rft.pub=Newadvent.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson, J. A. (1950). Philosophy of religion. New York: Ronald Press Co. Page 108.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, I., Guyer, P., &amp; Wood, A. W. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7bRychF0y0EC">Critique of pure reason</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 495.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Henri Lefebvre</a>'s "humanist" dialectical materialism (<i>Dialectical Materialism</i> [1940]) was composed to directly challenge <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s own dogmatic text on dialectical materialism.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example the work of Louis Althusser in France and Galvano Della Volpe in Italy in the mid-20th century.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Accessible Hegel</i> by Michael Allen Fox. Prometheus Books. 2005. p. 43. Also see Hegel's preface to the <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), secs. 50, 51, pp. 29. 30.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel: A Reinterpretation, 1966, Anchor Books, p.154)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. E. Mueller (June 1958), "The Hegel Legend of 'Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis", 166ff</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, <i>Werke</i>, ed. Glockner, XIX, 610</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See 'La différance' in: <i>Margins of Philosophy</i>. Alan Bass, translator. University of Chicago Books. 1982. p. 19, fn 23.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Hegel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/hl/hlbeing.htm#HL1_82">"Section in question from Hegel's ''Science of Logic''"</a>. Marxists.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.au=Hegel&amp;rft.btitle=Section+in+question+from+Hegel%27s+%27%26%2339%3BScience+of+Logic%27%26%2339%3B&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Freference%2Farchive%2Fhegel%2Fworks%2Fhl%2Fhlbeing.htm%23HL1_82&amp;rft.pub=Marxists.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. <i>The Logic</i>. <i>Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences</i>. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. Note to §81</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §§107-111</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §§108-109</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §108</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §93</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §95</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1812. Hegel's Science of Logic. London. Allen &amp; Unwin. §§176-179.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1812. Hegel's Science of Logic. London. Allen &amp; Unwin. §185.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marx, Karl (1873) <i>Capital</i> Afterword to the Second German Edition, Vol. I <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/p3.htm">[1]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Marx, Karl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/doc/Capital-Volume-I.doc">"Afterword (Second German Ed.)"</a>. <i>Capital</i> <b>1</b>: 14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.atitle=Afterword+%28Second+German+Ed.%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Karl&amp;rft.aulast=Marx&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2Fdownload%2Fdoc%2FCapital-Volume-I.doc&amp;rft.jtitle=Capital&amp;rft.pages=14&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Engels, Frederick, (1877) <i>Anti-Dühring,</i>Part I: Philosophy, XIII. Dialectics. Negation of the Negation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch11.htm">[2]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/ch02.htm">"Engels, Frederick, (1883) ''Dialectics of Nature:''II. Dialectics"</a>. Marxists.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=Engels%2C+Frederick%2C+%281883%29+%27%26%2339%3BDialectics+of+Nature%3A%27%26%2339%3BII.+Dialectics&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1883%2Fdon%2Fch02.htm&amp;rft.pub=Marxists.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marx, Karl, (1873) <i>Capital</i> Vol. I, Afterword to the Second German Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/p3.htm">[3]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lenin.2C_V.I._page_7-9_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenin, V. I., <i>On the Question of Dialectics: A Collection</i>, pp. 7-9. Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1980.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anacker, Stefan (2005, rev. ed.). <i>Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor.</i> Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. (First published: 1984; Reprinted: 1986, 1994, 1998; Corrected: 2002; Revised: 2005), p.20</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ErnestGreer2009-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ErnestGreer2009_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Paul Ernest; Brian Greer; Bharath Sriraman (30 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AHO9s9DDV5QC&amp;pg=PA327"><i>Critical issues in mathematics education</i></a>. IAP. p.&#160;327. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60752-039-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60752-039-9">978-1-60752-039-9</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.au=Bharath+Sriraman&amp;rft.au=Brian+Greer&amp;rft.au=Paul+Ernest&amp;rft.btitle=Critical+issues+in+mathematics+education&amp;rft.date=2009-06-30&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAHO9s9DDV5QC%26pg%3DPA327&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-60752-039-9&amp;rft.pages=327&amp;rft.pub=IAP&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dundas (2002)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koller, John M. (July 2000).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Duli-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Duli_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duli Chandra Jain (ed.) (1997) p.21</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hughes, Marilynn (2005) P. 590</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chatterjea, Tara (2001) p.77-87</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Koller, John M. (July 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=59942245&amp;Fmt=4&amp;clientId=71080&amp;RQT=309&amp;VName=PQD">"Sy?dv?da as the epistemological key to the Jaina middle way metaphysics of Anek?ntav?da"</a>. <i>Philosophy East and West</i> (Honululu) <b>50</b> (3): 400–8. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8221">0031-8221</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1400182">1400182</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.atitle=Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da+as+the+epistemological+key+to+the+Jaina+middle+way+metaphysics+of+Anek%C4%81ntav%C4%81da&amp;rft.aufirst=John+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Koller&amp;rft.date=2000-07&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1400182&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproquest.umi.com%2Fpqdweb%3Fdid%3D59942245%26Fmt%3D4%26clientId%3D71080%26RQT%3D309%26VName%3DPQD&amp;rft.issn=0031-8221&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&amp;rft.pages=400-8&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=50" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-grimes-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grimes_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grimes, John (1996) p. 312</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BR1-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BR1_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BR1_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://original.britannica.com/eb/topic-409012/neoorthodoxy">"Original Britinnica online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=Original+Britinnica+online&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foriginal.britannica.com%2Feb%2Ftopic-409012%2Fneoorthodoxy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BR2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BR2_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BR2_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409012/neoorthodoxy#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked&amp;title=neoorthodoxy%20--%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia">"Britannica Encyclopedia (online)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=Britannica+Encyclopedia+%28online%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F409012%2Fneoorthodoxy%23tab%3Dactive~checked%252Citems~checked%26title%3Dneoorthodoxy%2520--%2520Britannica%2520Online%2520Encyclopedia&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-MW-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MW_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/neo-orthodox">"Merriam-Webster Dictionary(online)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary%28online%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fneo-orthodox&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/91/N0059100.html">"American Heritage Dictionary (online)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.btitle=American+Heritage+Dictionary+%28online%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F61%2F91%2FN0059100.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Church Dogmatics III/3, xii.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biel, R. and Mu-Jeong Kho (2009) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/regulation/wp/document/RR_serieID_2009-1.pdf">The Issue of Energy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regulationist Problematique</a>," Recherches &amp; Régulation Working Papers, RR Série ID 2009-1, Association Recherche &amp; Régulation: 1-21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jean-Paul Sartre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/critic/sartre1.htm">"The Search for Method (1st part) Sartre, 1960, in Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre, transl. Hazel Barnes, Vintage Books"</a>. Marxists.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.au=Jean-Paul+Sartre&amp;rft.btitle=The+Search+for+Method+%281st+part%29+Sartre%2C+1960%2C+in+Existentialism+from+Dostoyevsky+to+Sartre%2C+transl.+Hazel+Barnes%2C+Vintage+Books&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Freference%2Farchive%2Fsartre%2Fworks%2Fcritic%2Fsartre1.htm&amp;rft.pub=Marxists.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Popper,<i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a>: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge</i> [New York: Basic Books, 1962], p. 316.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Walter Kaufmann. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/kaufmann.htm">"kaufmann"</a>. Marxists.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic&amp;rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&amp;rft.btitle=kaufmann&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Freference%2Fsubject%2Fphilosophy%2Fworks%2Fus%2Fkaufmann.htm&amp;rft.pub=Marxists.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Popper,<i>The Open Society and Its Enemies</i>, 5th rev. ed., vol. 2 [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966], p.&#160;395</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Logical models of argument, CI Chesñevar, AG Maguitman, R Loui - ACM Computing Surveys, 2000 and Logics for defeasible argumentation, H Prakken, Handbook of philosophical logic, 2002 for surveys of work in this area.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<p>Laske, Otto (2015). Dialectical Thinking for Integral Leaders: A Primer". Integral Publishers. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780990441991" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-9904419-9-1</a></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Biel, R. and Mu-Jeong Kho (2009) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/regulation/wp/document/RR_serieID_2009-1.pdf">The Issue of Energy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regulationist Problematique</a>," Recherches &amp; Régulation Working Papers, RR Série ID 2009-1, Association Recherche &amp; Régulation: 1-21.</li>
<li>McKeon, R. (1954) "Dialectic and Political Thought and Action." Ethics 65, No. 1: 1-33.</li>
<li>Postan, M. (1962) "Function and Dialectic in Economic History," The Economic History Review, No. 3.</li>
<li>Spranzi, Marta (2011). <i>The Art of Dialectic between Dialogue and Rhetoric: The Aristotelian Tradition</i>, Philadelphi: John Benjamins.</li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
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						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiek" title="Dialektiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%B3%E1%8B%AB%E1%88%8C%E1%8A%AD%E1%89%B2%E1%8A%AD" title="ዳያሌክቲክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جدلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectica" title="Dialectica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9utica" title="Dialéutica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C4%81n-ch%C3%A8ng" title="Pi?n-chèng – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ды?лектыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ды?лектыка – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a href="//bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijalektika" title="Dijalektika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daelerezh" title="Daelerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A8ctica" title="Dialèctica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilechdid" title="Dilechdid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Διαλεκτική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9ctica" title="Dialéctica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیالکتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectique" title="Dialectique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9ctica" title="Dialéctica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%80%EC%A6%9D%EB%B2%95" title="변?법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Դիալեկտիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="द?वंद?वात?मक तर?कपद?धति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijalektika" title="Dijalektika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Er%C3%A6tub%C3%B3k" title="Þrætubók – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialettica" title="Dialettica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="די?לקטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="დი?ლექტიკ? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D3%99%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96" title="Танымның диалектикалық әді?і – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upembuzi" title="Upembuzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyalekt%C3%AEk" title="Diyalektîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectica" title="Dialectica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiek" title="Dialektiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Дијалектика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="വൈര?ദ?ധ?യാത?മക വാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf"><a href="//xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="დი?ლექტიკ? – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf">მ?რგ?ლური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ဒိုင်ယာလက်?စ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectiek" title="Dialectiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%81%E8%A8%BC%E6%B3%95" title="?証法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektikk" title="Dialektikk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektikk" title="Dialektikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectica" title="Dialectica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਵਿਰੋਧਵਿਕਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DA%A9" title="ڈایالیکٹک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9tica" title="Dialética – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektyka" title="Dialektyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9tica" title="Dialética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="//kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic%C4%83" title="Dialectică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Діалектіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیالێکتیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Дијалектика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijalektika" title="Dijalektika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiikka" title="Dialektiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நியாயவாதம? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B5" title="วิภาษวิธี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyalektik" title="Diyalektik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Діалектика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جدلیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a href="//za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bienhcingqfap" title="Bienhcingqfap – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%E1%BB%87n_ch%E1%BB%A9ng" title="Biện chứng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="די?לעקטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E8%AD%89%E6%B3%95" title="辯證法 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E6%B3%95" title="辩?法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
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