
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" dir="ltr" class="client-nojs">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8"/>
<title>Baruch Spinoza - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</title>
<script>document.documentElement.className = document.documentElement.className.replace( /(^|\s)client-nojs(\s|$)/, "$1client-js$2" );</script>
<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Baruch_Spinoza","wgTitle":"Baruch Spinoza","wgCurRevisionId":728993191,"wgRevisionId":728993191,"wgArticleId":3408,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL","Use dmy dates from October 2012","Articles with hCards","Articles containing Hebrew-language text","Articles containing Portuguese-language text","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing French-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014","AC with 16 elements","Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers","Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers","Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers","Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers","Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers","Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers","Wikipedia articles with BPN identifiers","Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers","Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers","Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers","Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers","Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers","Baruch Spinoza","1632 births","1677 deaths","17th-century Dutch philosophers","17th-century Latin-language writers","17th-century theologians","17th-century Sephardi Jews","Critics of Judaism","Determinists","Dutch Jews","Dutch people of Portuguese-Jewish descent","Early Modern philosophers","Enlightenment philosophers","Heresy","Jewish biblical scholars","Jewish philosophers","Jewish skeptics","Jewish translators of the Bible","Ontologists","Pantheists","People excommunicated by synagogues","Philosophers of mind","Rationalists","Writers from Amsterdam"],"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgMonthNamesShort":["","Jan","Feb","Mar","Apr","May","Jun","Jul","Aug","Sep","Oct","Nov","Dec"],"wgRelevantPageName":"Baruch_Spinoza","wgRelevantArticleId":3408,"wgRequestId":"V4Bj-QpAIC8AACLVAO4AAAAV","wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgWikiEditorEnabledModules":{"toolbar":true,"dialogs":true,"preview":false,"publish":false},"wgBetaFeaturesFeatures":[],"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","usePageImages":true,"usePageDescriptions":true},"wgPreferredVariant":"en","wgRelatedArticles":null,"wgRelatedArticlesUseCirrusSearch":true,"wgRelatedArticlesOnlyUseCirrusSearch":false,"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1,"quality":2,"pristine":3}}},"wgStableRevisionId":null,"wgCategoryTreePageCategoryOptions":"{\"mode\":0,\"hideprefix\":20,\"showcount\":true,\"namespaces\":false}","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCentralNoticeCategoriesUsingLegacy":["Fundraising","fundraising"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q35802","wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgVisualEditorToolbarScrollOffset":0});mw.loader.implement("user.options",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.options.set({"variant":"en"});});mw.loader.implement("user.tokens",function ( $, jQuery, require, module ) {
mw.user.tokens.set({"editToken":"+\\","patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"});/*@nomin*/;

});mw.loader.load(["mediawiki.page.startup","mediawiki.legacy.wikibits","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.head","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.uls.init","ext.uls.interface","ext.quicksurveys.init","mw.MediaWikiPlayer.loader","mw.PopUpMediaTransform","ext.centralNotice.bannerController","skins.vector.js"]);});</script>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.gadget.DRN-wizard%2CReferenceTooltips%2Ccharinsert%2Cfeatured-articles-links%2CrefToolbar%2Cswitcher%2Cteahouse%7Cext.tmh.thumbnail.styles%7Cext.uls.nojs%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cmediawiki.legacy.commonPrint%2Cshared%7Cmediawiki.raggett%2CsectionAnchor%7Cmediawiki.skinning.interface%7Cskins.vector.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector"/>
<meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=site.styles&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector"/>
<script async="" src="/w/load.php?debug=false&amp;lang=en&amp;modules=startup&amp;only=scripts&amp;skin=vector"></script>
<meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.28.0-wmf.9"/>
<meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"/>
<link rel="alternate" href="android-app://org.wikipedia/http/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza"/>
<link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit"/>
<link rel="edit" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit"/>
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"/>
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"/>
<link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="Wikipedia (en)"/>
<link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"/>
<link rel="copyright" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/"/>
<link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza"/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" />
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Baruch_Spinoza rootpage-Baruch_Spinoza skin-vector action-view">
		<div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main">
			<a id="top"></a>

							<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
						<div class="mw-indicators">
</div>
			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Baruch Spinoza</h1>
									<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
									<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
								<div id="contentSub"></div>
												<div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump">
					Jump to:					<a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, 					<a href="#p-search">search</a>
				</div>
				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">"Spinoza" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Spinoza_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Spinoza (disambiguation)">Spinoza (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<table class="infobox biography vcard" style="width:22em">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold"><span class="fn">Baruch Spinoza</span></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Spinoza.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/225px-Spinoza.jpg" width="225" height="261" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/338px-Spinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/450px-Spinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1600" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Born</th>
<td><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1632-11-24</span>)</span>24 November 1632<br />
<span class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Died</th>
<td>21 February 1677<span style="display:none">(<span class="dday deathdate">1677-02-21</span>)</span> (aged&#160;44)<br />
<span class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Residence</th>
<td>Netherlands</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Nationality</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Alma&#160;mater</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Leiden" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leiden">University of Leiden</a> (no degree)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Era</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Region</th>
<td class="category">Western Philosophy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>, founder of <a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Main interests</div>
</th>
<td>Ethics, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, Hebrew grammar</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Notable ideas</div>
</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parallelism_(philosophy)" title="Parallelism (philosophy)">parallelism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_freedom" title="Intellectual freedom">intellectual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">religious freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>, criticism of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Mosaic</a> authorship of some books of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" title="Forms of government">political society</a> as derived from <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">contract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affect_(philosophy)" title="Affect (philosophy)">affect</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Natura_naturans" title="Natura naturans">natura naturans</a></i>/<i><a href="/wiki/Natura_naturata" title="Natura naturata">natura naturata</a></i></td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influences</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccolo_Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Niccolo Machiavelli">Niccolo Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franciscus_van_den_Enden" title="Franciscus van den Enden">Franciscus van den Enden</a></div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influenced</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arne_N%C3%A6ss" title="Arne Næss">Næss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Heinrich Marx">Marx</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Wagner" title="Gabriel Wagner">G. Wagner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Hardt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">L. Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Baruch Spinoza</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ə/ 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/u?/ long 'oo' in 'food'">u?</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span> <span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɪ/ short 'i' in 'bid'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'n' in 'no'">n</span><span title="/oʊ/ long 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'z' in 'Zion'">z</span><span title="/ə/ 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> <small>Dutch:&#160;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Dutch" title="Help:IPA for Dutch">[ba?ˈrux spɪˈno?za?]</a></span>; born <b>Benedito de Espinosa</b>, <small>Portuguese:&#160;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Portuguese" title="Help:IPA for Portuguese">[bɨnɨˈðitu ðɨ ʃpiˈnɔz?]</a></span>; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677, later <b>Benedict de Spinoza</b>) was a <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> philosopher of <a href="/wiki/Sephardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi">Sephardi</a>/<a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> By laying the groundwork for the 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a><sup id="cite_ref-tws9907_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9907-5">[5]</a></sup> and modern <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">biblical criticism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> including modern conceptions of the self and the universe,<sup id="cite_ref-tws9906_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9906-7">[7]</a></sup> he came to be considered one of the great <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a> of <a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza's <a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a>, the posthumous <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i>, in which he opposed <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">mind–body dualism</a>, has earned him recognition as one of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>'s most important thinkers. In the <i>Ethics</i>, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-9">[9]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a> said, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."<sup id="cite_ref-Hegel.27s_History_of_Philosophy_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hegel.27s_History_of_Philosophy-10">[10]</a></sup> His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th-century philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza's given name varies among different languages: <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl" xml:lang="he">ברוך שפינוזה</span>‎‎ <i>Baruch Spinoza</i>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>Benedito or Bento de Espinosa</i></span> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>Benedictus de Spinoza</i></span>; in all these languages, the given name or its etymology means "Blessed". Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Synagogue_(Amsterdam)" title="Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam)">Jewish religious authorities</a> issued a <i><a href="/wiki/Herem_(censure)" title="Herem (censure)">cherem</a></i> (Hebrew: חר?, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a>) against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's <i><a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index of Forbidden Books</a></i>.</p>
<p>Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> grinder, turning down rewards and honours throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions. He died at the age of 44 allegedly of a lung illness, perhaps <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a> exacerbated by fine glass dust inhaled while grinding optical lenses. He is buried in the churchyard of the Christian <a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Kerk_(The_Hague)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)">Nieuwe Kerk</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Biography"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Biography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Family_and_community_origins"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Family and community origins</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#17th-century_Netherlands"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">17th-century Netherlands</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Expulsion_from_the_Jewish_community"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Expulsion from the Jewish community</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Later_life_and_career"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Later life and career</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Voorburg"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Voorburg</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Lens-grinding_and_optics"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Lens-grinding and optics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#The_Hague"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">The Hague</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Writings_and_correspondence"><span class="tocnumber">1.9</span> <span class="toctext">Writings and correspondence</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Substance.2C_attributes.2C_and_modes"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Substance, attributes, and modes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Ethical_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ethical philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Spinoza.27s_Ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Spinoza's <i>Ethics</i></span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#History_of_reception"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">History of reception</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Pantheist.2C_panentheist.2C_or_atheist.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pantheist, panentheist, or atheist?</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Comparison_to_Eastern_philosophies"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Comparison to Eastern philosophies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Spinoza.27s_reception_in_the_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Spinoza's reception in the 20th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Spinoza.27s_religious_criticism_and_its_effect_on_the_philosophy_of_language"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Spinoza's religious criticism and its effect on the philosophy of language</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Spinoza_in_literature.2C_art.2C_and_popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Spinoza in literature, art, and popular culture</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Biography">Biography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Family_and_community_origins">Family and community origins</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Family and community origins">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Spinoza's ancestors were of <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic Jew">Sephardic Jewish</a> descent and were a part of the community of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Jews">Portuguese Jews</a> that had settled in the city of <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> (1536), which had resulted in <a href="/wiki/Conversos" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversos">forced conversions</a> and expulsions from the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
<p>Attracted by the Decree of Toleration issued in 1579 by the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht" title="Union of Utrecht">Union of Utrecht</a>, Portuguese "<a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a>" first sailed to Amsterdam in 1593 and promptly reconverted to Judaism.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> In 1598 permission was granted to build a synagogue, and in 1615 an ordinance for the admission and government of the Jews was passed.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-15">[15]</a></sup> As a community of exiles, the Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam were highly proud of their identity.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<p>The Spinoza family ("de Espinosa" or "Espinosa" in Portuguese and in Spanish; it could also be spelled as "de Espinoza" or "Espinoza" in both languages) probably had its origins in <a href="/wiki/Espinosa_de_los_Monteros" title="Espinosa de los Monteros">Espinosa de los Monteros</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Burgos" title="Burgos">Burgos</a>, or in <a href="/wiki/Espinosa_de_Cerrato" title="Espinosa de Cerrato">Espinosa de Cerrato</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Palencia" title="Palencia">Palencia</a>, both in <a href="/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)" title="Castile (historical region)">Northern Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. The family was expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to Portugal. Portugal compelled them to convert to Catholicism in 1498.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza's father was born roughly a century after this forced conversion in the small Portuguese city of <a href="/wiki/Vidigueira" title="Vidigueira">Vidigueira</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Beja_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beja (Portugal)">Beja</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alentejo" title="Alentejo">Alentejo</a>. When Spinoza's father was still a child, Spinoza's grandfather, Isaac de Spinoza (who was from <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>), took his family to <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a> in France. They were expelled in 1615 and moved to <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>, where Isaac died in 1627.</p>
<p>Spinoza's father, Miguel (Michael), and his uncle, Manuel, then moved to Amsterdam where they resumed the practice of Judaism. Miguel was a successful merchant and became a warden of the synagogue and of the Amsterdam Jewish school.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-15">[15]</a></sup> He buried three wives and three of his six children died before reaching adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="17th-century_Netherlands">17th-century Netherlands</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: 17th-century Netherlands">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> centres where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. This flourishing commercial activity encouraged a culture relatively tolerant of the play of new ideas, sheltered from the censorious hand of ecclesiastical authority. Not by chance were the philosophical works of both Descartes and Spinoza developed in the cultural and intellectual background of the Dutch Republic in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Spinoza may have had access to a circle of friends who were unconventional in terms of social tradition, including members of the <a href="/wiki/Collegiants" title="Collegiants">Collegiants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> One of the people he knew was <a href="/wiki/Niels_Stensen" class="mw-redirect" title="Niels Stensen">Niels Stensen</a>, a brilliant Danish student in Leiden;<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> others included <a href="/wiki/Albert_Burgh" title="Albert Burgh">Albert Burgh</a>, with whom Spinoza is known to have corresponded.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png/250px-Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png" width="250" height="185" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png/375px-Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png/500px-Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="573" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Jodenbreestraat_Amsterdam_from_a_map_of_1625.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Map by Balthasar Florisz van Berckenrode (1625) with the present location of the Moses and Aaron church in white, but also the spot where Spinoza grew up.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg/250px-Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg" width="250" height="356" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg/375px-Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg/500px-Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="740" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Spinoza lived where the <a href="/wiki/Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk_(Amsterdam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozes en Aäronkerk (Amsterdam)">Moses and Aaron Church</a> is located now, and there is strong evidence that he may have been born there.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Benedito de Espinoza was born on 24 November 1632 in the <a href="/wiki/Jodenbuurt_(Amsterdam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jodenbuurt (Amsterdam)">Jodenbuurt</a> in Amsterdam, Netherlands. He was the second son of Miguel de Espinoza, a successful, although not wealthy, Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jewish</a> merchant in Amsterdam.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> His mother, Ana Débora, Miguel's second wife, died when Baruch was only six years old.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> Spinoza's mother tongue was Portuguese, although he also knew Hebrew, Spanish, Dutch, perhaps French, and later Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-27">[27]</a></sup> Although he wrote in Latin, Spinoza learned Latin late in his youth.</p>
<p>Spinoza had a traditional Jewish upbringing, attending the Keter Torah <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshiva</a> of the Amsterdam Talmud Torah congregation headed by the learned and traditional senior Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Saul_Levi_Morteira" title="Saul Levi Morteira">Saul Levi Morteira</a>. His teachers also included the less traditional Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Manasseh_ben_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Manasseh ben Israel">Manasseh ben Israel</a>, "a man of wide learning and secular interests, a friend of <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Vossius" title="Gerardus Vossius">Vossius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> While presumably a star pupil, and perhaps considered as a potential rabbi, Spinoza never reached the advanced study of the Torah in the upper levels of the curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1-29">[29]</a></sup> Instead, at the age of 17, after the death of his elder brother, Isaac, he cut short his formal studies in order to begin working in the family importing business.<sup id="cite_ref-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1-29">[29]</a></sup></p>
<p>In 1653, at age 20, Spinoza began studying Latin with Francis van den Enden (<a href="/wiki/Franciscus_van_den_Enden" title="Franciscus van den Enden">Franciscus van den Enden</a>), a notorious free thinker, former Jesuit, and radical democrat who likely introduced Spinoza to scholastic and <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>, including that of Descartes.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> (A decade later, in the early 1660s, Van den Enden was considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">Cartesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> and his books were put on the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Catholic Index of Banned Books</a>.)</p>
<p>Spinoza's father, Miguel, died in 1654 when Spinoza was 21. He duly recited <a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a>, the Jewish prayer of mourning, for eleven months as required by Jewish law.<sup id="cite_ref-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1-32">[32]</a></sup> When his sister Rebekah disputed his inheritance, he took her to court to establish his claim, won his case, but then renounced his claim in her favour.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza adopted the Latin name Benedictus de Spinoza,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> began boarding with Van den Enden, and began teaching in his school.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Following an anecdote in an early biography by Johannes Corelus,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> he is said to have fallen in love with his teacher's daughter, Clara, but she rejected him for a richer student. (This story has been discounted on the basis that Clara Maria van den Enden was born in 1643 and would have been no more than about 18 years old when Spinoza left Amsterdam.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-27">[27]</a></sup> In 1671 she married <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Kerckring" title="Theodor Kerckring">Dirck Kerckring</a>.)</p>
<p>During this period Spinoza also became acquainted with the <a href="/wiki/Collegiants" title="Collegiants">Collegiants</a>, an anti-clerical sect of <a href="/wiki/Remonstrants" title="Remonstrants">Remonstrants</a> with tendencies towards <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, and with the <a href="/wiki/Mennonite" title="Mennonite">Mennonites</a> who had existed for a century but were close to the Remonstrants.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> Many of his friends belonged to dissident Christian groups which met regularly as discussion groups and which typically rejected the authority of established churches as well as traditional dogmas.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza's break with the prevailing dogmas of Judaism, and particularly the insistence on non-Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, was not sudden; rather, it appears to have been the result of a lengthy internal struggle: "If anyone thinks my criticism [regarding the authorship of the Bible] is of too sweeping a nature and lacking sufficient foundation, I would ask him to undertake to show us in these narratives a definite plan such as might legitimately be imitated by historians in their chronicles... If he succeeds, I shall at once admit defeat, and he will be my mighty Apollo. For I confess that all my efforts over a long period have resulted in no such discovery. Indeed, I may add that I write nothing here that is not the fruit of lengthy reflection; and although I have been educated from boyhood in the accepted beliefs concerning Scripture, I have felt bound in the end to embrace the views I here express."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<p>Nevertheless, once branded as a heretic, Spinoza's clashes with authorities became more pronounced. For example, questioned by two members of his synagogue, Spinoza apparently responded that God has a body and nothing in scripture says otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> He was later attacked on the steps of the synagogue by a knife-wielding assailant shouting "Heretic!" He was apparently quite shaken by this attack and for years kept (and wore) his torn cloak, unmended, as a souvenir.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup></p>
<p>After his father's death in 1654, Spinoza and his younger brother Gabriel (Abraham).<sup id="cite_ref-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1-32">[32]</a></sup> ran the family importing business. The business ran into serious financial difficulties, however, perhaps as a result of the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a>. In March 1656, Spinoza filed suit with the Amsterdam municipal authorities to be declared an orphan in order to escape his father's business debts and so that he could inherit his mother's estate (which at first was incorporated into his father's estate) without it being subject to his father's creditors.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> In addition, after having made substantial contributions to the Talmud Torah synagogue in 1654 and 1655, he reduced his December 1655 contribution and his March 1656 pledge to nominal amounts (and the March 1656 pledge was never paid).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza was eventually able to relinquish responsibility for the business and its debts to his younger brother, Gabriel, and devote himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, especially the system expounded by <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, and to optics.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Expulsion_from_the_Jewish_community">Expulsion from the Jewish community</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Expulsion from the Jewish community">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>On 27 July 1656, the Talmud Torah congregation of Amsterdam issued a writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Herem_(censure)" title="Herem (censure)">cherem</a></i> (Hebrew: חר?, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a>) against the 23-year-old Spinoza.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> The following document translates the official record of the censure:<sup id="cite_ref-ts66_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ts66-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
<blockquote>
<p>The Lords of the ma'amad, having long known of the evil opinions and acts of Baruch de Espinoza, have endeavoured by various means and promises, to turn him from his evil ways. But having failed to make him mend his wicked ways, and, on the contrary, daily receiving more and more serious information about the abominable heresies which he practised and taught and about his monstrous deeds, and having for this numerous trustworthy witnesses who have deposed and born witness to this effect in the presence of the said Espinoza, they became convinced of the truth of the matter; and after all of this has been investigated in the presence of the honourable <i>chachamin</i> [sages], they have decided, with their consent, that the said Espinoza should be excommunicated and expelled from the people of Israel. By the decree of the angels, and by the command of the holy men, we excommunicate, expel, curse and damn Baruch de Espinoza, with the consent of God, Blessed be He, and with the consent of all the Holy Congregation, in front of these holy Scrolls with the <a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">six-hundred-and-thirteen precepts</a> which are written therein, with the excommunication with which Joshua banned Jericho, with the curse with which Elisha cursed the boys, and with all the curses which are written in the Book of the Law. Cursed be he by day and cursed be he by night; cursed be he when he lies down, and cursed be he when he rises up; cursed be he when he goes out, and cursed be he when he comes in. The Lord will not spare him; the anger and wrath of the Lord will rage against this man, and bring upon him all the curses which are written in this book, and the Lord will blot out his name from under heaven, and the Lord will separate him to his injury from all the tribes of Israel with all the curses of the covenant, which are written in the Book of the Law. But you who cleave unto the Lord God are all alive this day. We order that no one should communicate with him orally or in writing, or show him any favour, or stay with him under the same roof, or within four <a href="/wiki/Ell" title="Ell">ells</a> of him, or read anything composed or written by him.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Talmud Torah congregation issued censure routinely, on matters great and small, so such an edict was not unusual.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Espinoza_estatua.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Espinoza_estatua.jpg/180px-Espinoza_estatua.jpg" width="180" height="279" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Espinoza_estatua.jpg/270px-Espinoza_estatua.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Espinoza_estatua.jpg 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="472" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Espinoza_estatua.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Statue of Spinoza, near his house on the Paviljoensgracht in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The language of Spinoza's censure is unusually harsh, however, and does not appear in any other censure known to have been issued by the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> The exact reason for expelling Spinoza is not stated.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> The censure refers only to the "abominable heresies that he practised and taught," to his "monstrous deeds," and to the testimony of witnesses "in the presence of the said Espinoza." There is no record of such testimony, but there appear to have been several likely reasons for the issuance of the censure.</p>
<p>First, there were Spinoza's radical theological views that he was apparently expressing in public. As philosopher and Spinoza biographer Steven Nadler puts it: "No doubt he was giving utterance to just those ideas that would soon appear in his philosophical treatises. In those works, Spinoza denies the immortality of the soul; strongly rejects the notion of a providential God—the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; and claims that the Law was neither literally given by God nor any longer binding on Jews. Can there be any mystery as to why one of history's boldest and most radical thinkers was sanctioned by an orthodox Jewish community?"<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<p>Second, the Amsterdam Jewish community was largely composed of former "conversos" who had fled from the Portuguese Inquisition within the previous century, with their children and grandchildren. This community must have been concerned to protect its reputation from any association with Spinoza lest his controversial views provide the basis for their own possible persecution or expulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> There is little evidence that the Amsterdam municipal authorities were directly involved in Spinoza's censure itself. But "in 1619, the town council expressly ordered [the Portuguese Jewish community] to regulate their conduct and ensure that the members of the community kept to a strict observance of Jewish law."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Other evidence makes it clear that the danger of upsetting the civil authorities was never far from mind, such as bans adopted by the synagogue on public wedding or funeral processions and on discussing religious matters with Christians, lest such activity might "disturb the liberty we enjoy."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> Thus, the issuance of Spinoza's censure was almost certainly, in part, an exercise in self-censorship by the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup></p>
<p>Third, it appears likely that Spinoza had already taken the initiative to separate himself from the Talmud Torah congregation and was vocally expressing his hostility to Judaism itself. He had probably stopped attending services at the synagogue, either after the lawsuit with his sister or after the knife attack on its steps. He might already have been voicing the view expressed later in his <i>Theological-Political Treatise</i> that the civil authorities should suppress Judaism as harmful to the Jews themselves. Either for financial or other reasons,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> he had in any case effectively stopped contributing to the synagogue by March 1656. He had also committed the "monstrous deed," contrary to the regulations of the synagogue and the views of some rabbinical authorities (including Maimonides), of filing suit in a civil court rather than with the synagogue authorities<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>—to renounce his father's heritage, no less. Upon being notified of the issuance of the censure, he is reported to have said: "Very well; this does not force me to do anything that I would not have done of my own accord, had I not been afraid of a scandal."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> Thus, unlike most of the censure issued routinely by the Amsterdam congregation to discipline its members, the censure issued against Spinoza did not lead to repentance and so was never withdrawn.</p>
<p>After the censure, Spinoza is said to have addressed an "Apology" (defence), written in Spanish, to the elders of the synagogue, "in which he defended his views as orthodox, and condemned the rabbis for accusing him of 'horrible practices and other enormities' merely because he had neglected ceremonial observances."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> This "Apology" does not survive, but some of its contents may later have been included in his <i>Theological-Political Treatise</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> For example, he cited a series of cryptic statements by medieval biblical commentator <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ibn_Ezra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Ibn Ezra">Abraham Ibn Ezra</a> intimating that some apparently anachronistic passages of the Pentateuch (i.e., "[t]he Canaanite was then in the land," Genesis 12:6, which Ibn Ezra called a "mystery" and exhorted those "who understand[] it keep silent") were not of <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_authorship" title="Mosaic authorship">Mosaic authorship</a> as proof that his own views had valid historical precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<p>The most remarkable aspect of the censure may be not so much its issuance, or even Spinoza's refusal to submit, but the fact that Spinoza's expulsion from the Jewish community did not lead to his conversion to Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012-58">[58]</a></sup> Spinoza kept the Latin (and so implicitly Christian) name Benedict de Spinoza, maintained a close association with the Collegiants, a Christian sect, even moved to a town near the Collegiants' headquarters, and was buried in a Christian graveyard—but there is no evidence or suggestion that he ever accepted baptism or participated in a Christian mass. Thus, by default, Baruch de Espinoza became the first secular Jew of modern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
<p>In September 2012, the Portugees-Israëlietische Gemeente te Amsterdam asked the chief rabbi of their community <a href="/wiki/Haham_Pinchas_Toledano" class="mw-redirect" title="Haham Pinchas Toledano">Haham Pinchas Toledano</a> to reconsider the cherem after consulting several Spinoza experts. However he declined to remove it, citing Spinoza's "preposterous ideas, where he was tearing apart the very fundamentals of our religion".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Later_life_and_career">Later life and career</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Later life and career">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_espinoza.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Casa_espinoza.jpg/220px-Casa_espinoza.jpg" width="220" height="141" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Casa_espinoza.jpg/330px-Casa_espinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Casa_espinoza.jpg/440px-Casa_espinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="303" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_espinoza.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Spinoza's house in <a href="/wiki/Rijnsburg" title="Rijnsburg">Rijnsburg</a> from 1661 to 1663, now a museum</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Estudio_espinoza.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Estudio_espinoza.jpg/220px-Estudio_espinoza.jpg" width="220" height="173" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Estudio_espinoza.jpg/330px-Estudio_espinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Estudio_espinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="298" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Estudio_espinoza.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Study room of Spinoza</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Spinoza spent his remaining 21 years writing and studying as a private scholar.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza believed in a "Philosophy of tolerance and benevolence"<sup id="cite_ref-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically-60">[60]</a></sup> and actually lived the life which he preached. He was criticized and ridiculed during his life and afterwards for his alleged atheism. However, even those who were against him "had to admit he lived a saintly life".<sup id="cite_ref-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically-60">[60]</a></sup> Besides the religious controversies, nobody really had much bad to say about Spinoza other than, "he sometimes enjoyed watching spiders chase flies".<sup id="cite_ref-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>After the cherem, the Amsterdam municipal authorities expelled Spinoza from Amsterdam, "responding to the appeals of the rabbis, and also of the Calvinist clergy, who had been vicariously offended by the existence of a free thinker in the synagogue".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> He spent a brief time in or near the village of <a href="/wiki/Ouderkerk_aan_de_Amstel" title="Ouderkerk aan de Amstel">Ouderkerk aan de Amstel</a>, but returned soon afterwards to Amsterdam and lived there quietly for several years, giving private philosophy lessons and grinding lenses, before leaving the city in 1660 or 1661.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup></p>
<p>During this time in Amsterdam, Spinoza wrote his <i>Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being</i>, "of which two Dutch translations survive, discovered about 1810."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza moved around 1660 or 1661 from Amsterdam to <a href="/wiki/Rijnsburg" title="Rijnsburg">Rijnsburg</a>, (near <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>), the headquarters of the Collegiants.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> In Rijnsburg, he began work on his <i>Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy"</i> as well as on his masterpiece, the <i>Ethics</i>. In 1663, he returned briefly to Amsterdam, where he finished and published <i>Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy"</i> (the only work published in his lifetime under his own name), and then moved the same year to <a href="/wiki/Voorburg" title="Voorburg">Voorburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Voorburg">Voorburg</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Voorburg">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In Voorburg, Spinoza continued work on the <i>Ethics</i> and corresponded with scientists, philosophers, and theologians throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> He also wrote and published his <i>Theological Political Treatise</i> in 1670, in defence of secular and constitutional government, and in support of <a href="/wiki/Johan_de_Witt" title="Johan de Witt">Jan de Witt</a>, the Grand Pensionary of the Netherlands, against the Stadholder, the Prince of Orange.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> visited Spinoza and claimed that Spinoza's life was in danger when supporters of the <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">Prince of Orange</a> murdered de Witt in 1672.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> While published anonymously, the work did not long remain so, and de Witt's enemies characterized it as "forged in Hell by a renegade Jew and the Devil, and issued with the knowledge of Jan de Witt."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> It was condemned in 1673 by the Synod of the Reformed Church and formally banned in 1674.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Lens-grinding_and_optics">Lens-grinding and optics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Lens-grinding and optics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Spinoza earned a modest living from lens-grinding and instrument making, yet he was involved in important optical investigations of the day while living in Voorburg, through correspondence and friendships with scientist <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hudde" title="Johannes Hudde">Johannes Hudde</a>, including debate over microscope design with Huygens, favouring small objectives<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> and collaborating on calculations for a prospective 40&#160;ft telescope which would have been one of the largest in Europe at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> The quality of Spinoza's lenses was much praised by Christiaan Huygens, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> In fact, his technique and instruments were so esteemed that <a href="/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens,_Jr." title="Constantijn Huygens, Jr.">Constantijn Huygens</a> ground a "clear and bright" 42&#160;ft. telescope lens in 1687 from one of Spinoza's grinding dishes, ten years after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> The exact type of lenses that Spinoza made are not known, but very likely included lenses for both the microscope and telescope. He was said by anatomist <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Kerckring" title="Theodor Kerckring">Theodor Kerckring</a> to have produced an "excellent" microscope, the quality of which was the foundation of Kerckring's anatomy claims.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> During his time as a lens and instrument maker, he was also supported by small but regular donations from close friends.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_Hague">The Hague</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: The Hague">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In 1670, Spinoza moved to <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> where he lived on a small pension from Jan de Witt and a small annuity from the brother of his dead friend, Simon de Vries.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> He worked on the <i>Ethics</i>, wrote an unfinished Hebrew grammar, began his <i>Political Treatise</i>, wrote two scientific essays ("On the Rainbow" and "On the Calculation of Chances"), and began a Dutch translation of the Bible (which he later destroyed).<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza chose for his device the Latin word "caute" ("cautiously"), inscribed beneath a rose, itself a symbol of secrecy.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-9">[9]</a></sup> "For, having chosen to write in a language that was so widely intelligible, he was compelled to hide what he had written."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza was offered the chair of philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">University of Heidelberg</a>, but he refused it, perhaps because of the possibility that it might in some way curb his <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup></p>
<p>In 1676, Spinoza met with Leibniz at The Hague for a discussion of his principal philosophical work, <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i>, which had been completed in 1676. This meeting was described in <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Stewart_(philosopher)" title="Matthew Stewart (philosopher)">Matthew Stewart</a>'s <i>The Courtier and the Heretic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas1960-79">[79]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, and he died on 20 February 1677 at the age of 44.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> His premature death was said to be due to lung illness, possibly <a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a> as a result of breathing in glass dust from the lenses that he ground. Later, a shrine was made of his home in The Hague.<sup id="cite_ref-tws9914_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9914-81">[81]</a></sup></p>
<p>Textbooks and encyclopaedias often depict Spinoza as a solitary soul who eked out a living as a lens grinder; in reality, he had many friends but kept his needs to a minimum.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> He preached a philosophy of tolerance and benevolence. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Gottlieb" title="Anthony Gottlieb">Anthony Gottlieb</a> described him as living "a saintly life."<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> Reviewer M. Stuart Phelps noted, "No one has ever come nearer to the ideal life of the philosopher than Spinoza."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9911_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9911-82">[82]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Harold Bloom</a> wrote: "As a teacher of reality, he practised his own wisdom, and was surely one of the most exemplary human beings ever to have lived."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup> According to <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>: "In outward appearance he was unpretending, but not careless. His way of living was exceedingly modest and retired; often he did not leave his room for many days together. He was likewise almost incredibly frugal; his expenses sometimes amounted only to a few pence a day."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9913_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9913-84">[84]</a></sup> Bloom writes of Spinoza, "He appears to have had no sexual life."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup> Spinoza also corresponded with <a href="/wiki/Peter_Serrarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Serrarius">Peter Serrarius</a>, a radical Protestant and <a href="/wiki/Millennarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennarianism">millennarian</a> merchant. Serrarius was a patron to Spinoza after Spinoza left the Jewish community, and even had letters sent and received for the philosopher to and from third parties. Spinoza and Serrarius maintained their relationship until Serrarius' death in 1669.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> By the beginning of the 1660s, Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually Gottfried Leibniz<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas1960-79">[79]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg" title="Henry Oldenburg">Henry Oldenburg</a> paid him visits, as stated in Matthew Stewart's <i>The Courtier and the Heretic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas1960-79">[79]</a></sup> Spinoza corresponded with Oldenburg for the rest of his short life.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Writings_and_correspondence">Writings and correspondence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Writings and correspondence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The writings of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> have been described as "Spinoza's starting point."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup> Spinoza's first publication was his geometric exposition (proofs using the geometric method on the model of Euclid with definitions, axioms, etc.) of Descartes's Parts I and II of <i>Principles of Philosophy</i> (1663). Spinoza has been associated with Leibniz and Descartes as "rationalists" in contrast to "empiricists".<sup id="cite_ref-tws9904_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9904-86">[86]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza engaged in correspondence from December 1664 to June 1665 with <a href="/wiki/Willem_van_Blijenbergh" title="Willem van Blijenbergh">Willem van Blijenbergh</a>, an amateur <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> theologian, who questioned Spinoza on the definition of <a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">evil</a>. Later in 1665, Spinoza notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the <i><a href="/wiki/Theologico-Political_Treatise" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologico-Political Treatise">Theologico-Political Treatise</a></i>, published in 1670. Leibniz disagreed harshly with Spinoza in his own manuscript "Refutation of Spinoza,"<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> but he is also known to have met with Spinoza on at least one occasion<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas1960-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9904_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9904-86">[86]</a></sup> (as mentioned above), and his own work bears some striking resemblances to specific important parts of Spinoza's philosophy (see: <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a>).</p>
<p>When the public reactions to the anonymously published <i>Theologico-Political Treatise</i> were extremely unfavourable to his brand of Cartesianism, Spinoza was compelled to abstain from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a <a href="/wiki/Signet_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Signet ring">signet ring</a> which he used to mark his letters and which was engraved with a rose and the word "caute" (Latin for "cautiously").<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup></p>
<p>The <i>Ethics</i> and all other works, apart from the <i>Descartes' Principles of Philosophy</i> and the <i>Theologico-Political Treatise</i>, were published after his death in the <i><a href="/wiki/Opera_Posthuma" title="Opera Posthuma">Opera Posthuma</a></i>, edited by his friends in secrecy to avoid confiscation and destruction of manuscripts. The <i>Ethics</i> contains many still-unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modelled on Euclid's geometry<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> and has been described as a "superbly cryptic masterwork."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy">Philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Ethica.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Spinoza_Ethica.jpg/220px-Spinoza_Ethica.jpg" width="220" height="312" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Spinoza_Ethica.jpg/330px-Spinoza_Ethica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Spinoza_Ethica.jpg/440px-Spinoza_Ethica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="692" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Ethica.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The opening page of Spinoza's <i>magnum opus</i>, <i>Ethics</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Substance.2C_attributes.2C_and_modes">Substance, attributes, and modes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Substance, attributes, and modes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Baruch_Spinoza" title="Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza">Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza</a></div>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>These are the fundamental concepts with which Spinoza sets forth a vision of Being, illuminated by his awareness of God. They may seem strange at first sight. To the question "What is?" he replies: "Substance, its attributes, and modes".</p>
<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>— <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup></cite></div>
</blockquote>
<p>Spinoza argued that God exists and is abstract and impersonal.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> Spinoza's view of God is what <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> describes as <a href="/wiki/Classical_Pantheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Pantheism">Classical Pantheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup> Spinoza has also been described as an "Epicurean materialist,"<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup> specifically in reference to his opposition to Cartesian mind-body dualism. This view was held by Epicureans before him, as they believed that atoms with their probabilistic paths were the only substance that existed fundamentally.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> Spinoza, however, deviated significantly from Epicureans by adhering to strict determinism, much like the Stoics before him, in contrast to the Epicurean belief in the probabilistic path of atoms, which is more in line with contemporary thought on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> Spinoza's system imparted order and unity to the tradition of radical <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a>, offering powerful weapons for prevailing against "received authority." He contended that everything that exists in Nature (i.e., everything in the Universe) is one Reality (substance) and there is only one set of rules governing the whole of the reality which surrounds us and of which we are part. Spinoza viewed God and Nature as two names for the same reality,<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup> namely a single, fundamental <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> (meaning "that which stands beneath" rather than "matter") that is the basis of the universe and of which all lesser "entities" are actually modes or modifications, that all things are determined by Nature to exist and cause effects, and that the complex chain of cause and effect is understood only in part. His identification of God with nature was more fully explained in his posthumously published <i>Ethics.</i><sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> Spinoza's main contention with Cartesian mind–body dualism was that, if mind and body were truly distinct, then it is not clear how they can coordinate in any manner. Humans presume themselves to have <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, he argues, which is a result of their awareness of appetites that affect their minds, while being unable to understand the reasons why they want and act as they do.</p>
<p>Spinoza contends that "<i>Deus sive Natura</i>" is a being of infinitely many attributes, of which thought and extension are two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the physical and mental worlds as intertwined, causally related, and deriving from the same substance. It is important to note here that, in Parts 3 through 4 of the <i>Ethics</i>, Spinoza describes how the human mind is affected by both mental and physical factors. He directly contests dualism. The universal substance emanates both body and mind; while they are different attributes, there is no fundamental difference between these aspects. This formulation is a historically significant solution to the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</a>. Spinoza's system also envisages a God that does not rule over the universe by Providence in which God can make changes, but a God which itself is the deterministic system of which everything in nature is a part. Spinoza argues that "things could not have been produced by God in any other way or in any other order than is the case,";<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> he directly challenges a transcendental God which actively responds to events in the universe. Everything that has and will happen is a part of a long chain of cause and effect which, at a metaphysical level, humans are unable to change. No amount of prayer or ritual will sway God. Only knowledge of God, or the existence which humans inhabit, allows them to best respond to the world around them. Not only is it impossible for two infinite substances to exist (two infinities being absurd),<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> God—being the ultimate substance—cannot be affected by anything else, or else it would be affected by something else, and not be the fundamental substance.</p>
<p>Spinoza was a thoroughgoing <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinist</a> who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of <a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">necessity</a>. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand <i>why</i> we act as we do. By forming more "adequate" ideas about what we do and our emotions or <a href="/wiki/Affect_(philosophy)" title="Affect (philosophy)">affections</a>, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity). This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. 49, Part II. However, Spinoza also held that everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, humans have no free will. They believe, however, that their will is free. This illusionary perception of freedom stems from our human consciousness, experience, and indifference to prior natural causes. Humans think they are free but they ″dream with their eyes open″. For Spinoza, our actions are guided entirely by natural impulses. In his letter to G. H. Schuller (Letter 58), he wrote: "men are conscious of their desire and unaware of the causes by which [their desires] are determined."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup></p>
<p>This picture of Spinoza's determinism is ever more illuminated through reading this famous quote in <i>Ethics</i>: ″the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. … All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak.″<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> Thus for Spinoza morality and ethical judgement like choice is predicated on an illusion. For Spinoza, ″Blame″ and ″Praise″ are non existent human ideals only fathomable in the mind because we are so acclimatized to human consciousness interlinking with our experience that we have a false ideal of choice predicated upon this.</p>
<p>Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> inasmuch as both philosophies sought to fulfil a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness. However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> could defeat emotion. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can only be displaced or overcome by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethical_philosophy">Ethical philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Ethical philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Spinoza shared ethical beliefs with ancient Epicureans, in renouncing ethics beyond the material world, although Epicureans focused more on physical pleasure and Spinoza more on emotional wellbeing.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> Encapsulated at the start in his <i>Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding</i> (<i>Tractatus de intellectus emendatione</i>) is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held good and evil to be <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relative</a> concepts, claiming that nothing is intrinsically good or bad except relative to a particularity. Things that had classically been seen as good or evil, Spinoza argued, were simply good or bad for humans. Spinoza believes in a deterministic universe in which "All things in nature proceed from certain [definite] necessity and with the utmost perfection." Nothing happens by chance in Spinoza's world, and nothing is <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Spinoza.27s_Ethics">Spinoza's <i>Ethics</i></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Spinoza's Ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a></div>
<p>In the universe anything that happens comes from the essential nature of objects, or of God/Nature. According to Spinoza, reality is perfection. If circumstances are seen as unfortunate it is only because of our inadequate conception of reality. While components of the chain of cause and effect are not beyond the understanding of human reason, human grasp of the infinitely complex whole is limited because of the limits of science to empirically take account of the whole sequence. Spinoza also asserted that sense perception, though practical and useful, is inadequate for discovering truth. His concept of "<a href="/wiki/Conatus" title="Conatus">conatus</a>" states that human beings' natural inclination is to strive toward preserving an essential being, and asserts that virtue/human power is defined by success in this preservation of being by the guidance of reason as one's central ethical doctrine. According to Spinoza, the highest virtue is the intellectual love or knowledge of God/Nature/Universe.</p>
<p>Also in the "Ethics",<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> Spinoza discusses his beliefs about what he considers to be the three kinds of knowledge that come with perceptions. The first kind of knowledge he writes about is the knowledge of experiences. More precisely, this first type of knowledge can be known as the knowledge of things that could be “mutilated, confused, and without order.? <cite class="citation book">Spinoza, Benedict (1677). <i>The Ethics</i>. pp.&#160;Books 1–5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Benedict&amp;rft.aulast=Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethics&amp;rft.date=1677&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=Books+1-5&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> Another explanation of what the first knowledge can be is that it is the knowledge of dangerous reasoning. Dangerous reason lacks any type of rationality, and causes the mind to be in a “passive? state. This type of “passive mind? that Spinoza writes about in the earlier books of The Ethics is a state of the mind in which adequate causes become passions. Spinoza’s second knowledge involves reasoning plus emotions. He explains that this knowledge is had by the rationality of any adequate causes that have to do with anything common to the human mind. An example of this could be anything that is classified as being of imperfect virtue. Imperfect virtues are seen as those which are incomplete. Many philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle, would compare imperfect virtue to pagan virtue. Spinoza defines the third and final knowledge as the knowledge of God, which requires rationality and reason of the mind. In more detail, Spinoza uses this type of knowledge to join together the essence of God with the individual essence. This knowledge is also formed from any adequate causes that include perfect virtue. <cite class="citation book">Spinoza, Benedict (1677). <i>The Ethics</i>. pp.&#160;Books 1–5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Benedict&amp;rft.aulast=Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethics&amp;rft.date=1677&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=Books+1-5&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></p>
<p>In the final part of the "<a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a>", his concern with the meaning of "true blessedness", and his explanation of how emotions must be detached from external cause and so master them, foreshadow psychological techniques developed in the 1900s. His concept of three types of knowledge—opinion, reason, intuition—and his assertion that intuitive knowledge provides the greatest satisfaction of mind, lead to his proposition that the more we are conscious of ourselves and Nature/Universe, the more perfect and blessed we are (in reality) and that only intuitive knowledge is eternal.</p>
<p>Given Spinoza's insistence on a completely ordered world where "necessity" reigns, <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and Evil</a> have no absolute meaning. The world as it exists looks imperfect only because of our limited perception.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_reception">History of reception</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: History of reception">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pantheist.2C_panentheist.2C_or_atheist.3F">Pantheist, panentheist, or atheist?</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Pantheist, panentheist, or atheist?">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pantheism_controversy" title="Pantheism controversy">Pantheism controversy</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg/220px-Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg" width="220" height="343" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg/330px-Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg/440px-Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="760" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Baruch_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
An unfavorable engraving depiction of philosopher Spinoza, captioned in Latin, "A Jew and an Atheist".</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>It is a widespread belief that Spinoza equated God with the material universe. He has therefore been called the "prophet"<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> and "prince"<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> and most eminent expounder of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>. More specifically, in a letter to Henry Oldenburg he states, "as to the view of certain people that I identify God with Nature (taken as a kind of mass or corporeal matter), they are quite mistaken".<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> For Spinoza, our universe (cosmos) is a <i>mode</i> under two <i>attributes</i> of Thought and <a href="/wiki/Extension_(metaphysics)" title="Extension (metaphysics)">Extension</a>. God has infinitely many other attributes which are not present in our world.</p>
<p>According to German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> (1883–1969), when Spinoza wrote in <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Deus sive Natura</span></i> (Latin for 'God or Nature'), Spinoza meant God was <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Natura_naturans" title="Natura naturans">natura naturans</a></span></i> (nature doing what nature does; literally, 'nature naturing'), not <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Natura_naturata" title="Natura naturata">natura naturata</a></span></i> (nature already created; literally, 'nature natured'). Jaspers believed that Spinoza, in his philosophical system, did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.<sup id="cite_ref-ts64_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ts64-105">[105]</a></sup> Even God under the attributes of thought and extension cannot be identified strictly with our world. That world is of course "divisible"; it has parts. But Spinoza said, "no attribute of a substance can be truly conceived from which it follows that the substance can be divided", meaning that one cannot conceive an attribute in a way that leads to division of substance. He also said, "a substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible" (Ethics, Part I, Propositions 12 and 13).<sup id="cite_ref-ts65_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ts65-106">[106]</a></sup> Following this logic, our world should be considered as a mode under two attributes of thought and extension. Therefore, according to Jaspers, the pantheist formula "One and All" would apply to Spinoza only if the "One" preserves its transcendence and the "All" were not interpreted as the totality of finite things.<sup id="cite_ref-ts64_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ts64-105">[105]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Martial_Gu%C3%A9roult" class="mw-redirect" title="Martial Guéroult">Martial Guéroult</a> (1891–1976) suggested the term "<a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheism</a>", rather than "pantheism" to describe Spinoza's view of the relation between God and the world. The world is not God, but it is, in a strong sense, "in" God. Not only do finite things have God as their cause; they cannot be conceived without God.<sup id="cite_ref-ts65_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ts65-106">[106]</a></sup> However, American panentheist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> (1897–2000) insisted on the term <a href="/wiki/Classical_Pantheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Pantheism">Classical Pantheism</a> to describe Spinoza's view.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup></p>
<p>In 1785, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi</a> published a condemnation of Spinoza's pantheism, after <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Lessing</a> was thought to have confessed on his deathbed to being a "Spinozist", which was the equivalent in his time of being called an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all Nature and God are said to be nothing but extended <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>. This, for Jacobi, was the result of Enlightenment rationalism and it would finally end in absolute atheism. <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a> disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</a> and pantheism. The issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for European civilization at the time.</p>
<p>The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late 18th-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them:</p>
<ul>
<li>the unity of all that exists;</li>
<li>the regularity of all that happens;</li>
<li>the identity of spirit and nature.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<p>By 1879, Spinoza’s pantheism was praised by many, but was considered by some to be alarming and dangerously inimical.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza's "God or Nature" (<i>Deus sive Natura</i>) provided a living, natural God, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/First_cause_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="First cause argument">first cause argument</a> and the dead mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">Julien Offray de La Mettrie</a>'s (1709–1751) work, <i><a href="/wiki/Man_a_Machine" title="Man a Machine">Man a Machine</a></i> (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'homme machine</span>)</i>. Coleridge and Shelley saw in Spinoza's philosophy a <i>religion of nature</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> called him the "God-intoxicated man".<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9902_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9902-110">[110]</a></sup> Spinoza inspired the poet Shelley to write his essay "<a href="/wiki/The_Necessity_of_Atheism" title="The Necessity of Atheism">The Necessity of Atheism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza was considered to be an atheist because he used the word "God" (Deus) to signify a concept that was different from that of traditional Judeo–Christian monotheism. "Spinoza expressly denies personality and consciousness to God; he has neither intelligence, feeling, nor will; he does not act according to purpose, but everything follows necessarily from his nature, according to law...."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> Thus, Spinoza's cool, indifferent God<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> is the antithesis to the concept of an anthropomorphic, fatherly God who cares about humanity.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: Spinoza's God is an “infinite intellect?, (Ethics 2p11c) all knowing, (2p3) and capable of loving both himself—and us, insofar as we are part of his perfection. (5p35c) And if the mark of a personal being is that it is one towards which we can entertain personal attitudes, then we should note too that Spinoza recommends <i>amor intellectualis dei</i> (the intellectual love of God) as the supreme good for man. (5p33) However, the matter is complex. Spinoza's God does not have free will (1p32c1), he does not have purposes or intentions (1apendix), and Spinoza insists that “neither intellect nor will pertain to the nature of God? (1p17s1). Moreover, while we may love God, we need to remember that God is really not the kind of being who could ever love us back. “He who loves God cannot strive that God should love him in return,? says Spinoza (5p19).<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-113">[113]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> suggests that settling the question of Spinoza's atheism or pantheism depends on an analysis of attitudes. If pantheism is associated with religiosity, then Spinoza is not a pantheist, since Spinoza believes that the proper stance to take towards God is not one of reverence or religious awe, but instead one of objective study and reason, since taking the religious stance would leave one open to the possibility of error and superstition.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Comparison_to_Eastern_philosophies">Comparison to Eastern philosophies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Comparison to Eastern philosophies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Similarities between Spinoza's philosophy and Eastern philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authors. The 19th-century German Sanskritist <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Goldst%C3%BCcker" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Goldstücker">Theodore Goldstücker</a> was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between Spinoza's religious conceptions and the <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> tradition of India, writing that Spinoza's thought was</p>
<blockquote>
<p>... a western system of philosophy which occupies a foremost rank amongst the philosophies of all nations and ages, and which is so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines... We mean the philosophy of Spinoza, a man whose very life is a picture of that moral purity and intellectual indifference to the transitory charms of this world, which is the constant longing of the true Vedanta philosopher... comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Max_Muller" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Muller">Max Muller</a>, in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying "the Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a>, a founder of the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a> also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay "As to Spinoza's Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct out-flowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple."<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Spinoza.27s_reception_in_the_20th_century">Spinoza's reception in the 20th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Spinoza's reception in the 20th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Late 20th-century Europe demonstrated a greater philosophical interest in Spinoza, often from a left-wing or <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> perspective. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> liked Spinoza's account of the universe, interpreting it as materialistic.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup> Notable philosophers <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Étienne Balibar</a> have each drawn upon Spinoza's philosophy. Deleuze's doctoral thesis, published in 1968, refers to him as "the prince of philosophers".<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> Other philosophers heavily influenced by Spinoza include <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Brunner" title="Constantin Brunner">Constantin Brunner</a> and John David Garcia. <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hampshire" title="Stuart Hampshire">Stuart Hampshire</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Spinoza_(book)" title="Spinoza (book)">Spinoza</a></i>, a major English language study of Spinoza, though <a href="/wiki/H._H._Joachim" class="mw-redirect" title="H. H. Joachim">H. H. Joachim</a>'s work is equally valuable. Unlike most philosophers, Spinoza was highly regarded by <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> However, Nietzsche did never read Spinoza's works themselves, but took his information about Spinoza out of <a href="/wiki/Kuno_Fischer" title="Kuno Fischer">Kuno Fischer</a>'s <i>History of Modern Philosophy</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup></p>
<p>Spinoza was an important philosophical inspiration for <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>. When Santayana graduated from college, he published an essay, "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", in <i>The Harvard Monthly</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> Later, he wrote an introduction to <i>Spinoza's Ethics and "De intellectus emendatione"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> In 1932, Santayana was invited to present an essay (published as "Ultimate Religion")<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> at a meeting at <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> celebrating the tricentennial of Spinoza's birth. In Santayana's autobiography, he characterized Spinoza as his "master and model" in understanding the naturalistic basis of morality.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Spinoza.27s_religious_criticism_and_its_effect_on_the_philosophy_of_language">Spinoza's religious criticism and its effect on the philosophy of language</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Spinoza's religious criticism and its effect on the philosophy of language">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg/220px-Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" width="220" height="324" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg/330px-Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="644" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<i>Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> evoked Spinoza with the title (suggested to him by <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>) of the English translation of his first definitive philosophical work, <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>, an allusion to Spinoza's <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a></i>. Elsewhere, Wittgenstein deliberately borrowed the expression <i><a href="/wiki/Sub_specie_aeternitatis" title="Sub specie aeternitatis">sub specie aeternitatis</a></i> from Spinoza (<i>Notebooks, 1914-16</i>, p.&#160;83). The structure of his <i>Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</i> does have some structural affinities with Spinoza's <i>Ethics</i> (though, admittedly, not with the latter's own <i>Tractatus</i>) in erecting complex philosophical arguments upon basic logical assertions and principles. Furthermore, in propositions 6.4311 and 6.45 he alludes to a Spinozian understanding of eternity and interpretation of the religious concept of eternal life, stating that "If by eternity is understood not eternal temporal duration, but timelessness, then he lives eternally who lives in the present." (6.4311) "The contemplation of the world sub specie aeterni is its contemplation as a limited whole." (6.45)</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a> dedicated his first book, <i>Spinoza's Critique of Religion</i>, to an examination of the latter's ideas. In the book, Strauss identified Spinoza as part of the tradition of Enlightenment rationalism that eventually produced Modernity. Moreover, he identifies Spinoza and his works as the beginning of Jewish Modernity.<sup id="cite_ref-tws9912_83-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9912-83">[83]</a></sup> More recently <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Jonathan Israel</a>, Professor of Modern European History at The <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study" title="Institute for Advanced Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton</a>, has made a detailed case that from 1650 to 1750 Spinoza was "the chief challenger of the fundamentals of revealed religion, received ideas, tradition, morality, and what was everywhere regarded, in absolutist and non-absolutist states alike, as divinely constituted political authority."<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Spinoza_in_literature.2C_art.2C_and_popular_culture">Spinoza in literature, art, and popular culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Spinoza in literature, art, and popular culture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Spinoza has had influence beyond the confines of philosophy.</p>
<ul>
<li>On the Chair's table in the Dutch Parliament, Spinoza's <i>Tractatus theologico-politicus</i> is one of three books thought to be most representative of the beliefs and ethics of the Dutch people; the other two are the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qu%27ran" class="mw-redirect" title="Qu'ran">Qu'ran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup></li>
<li>The 19th century novelist <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a> produced her own translation of the <i>Ethics</i>, the first known English translation of it. Eliot liked Spinoza's vehement attacks on superstition.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li>In his autobiography "From My Life: Poetry and Truth", Goethe recounts the way in which Spinoza's <i>Ethics</i> calmed the sometimes unbearable emotional turbulence of his youth. Goethe later displayed his grasp of Spinoza's metaphysics in a fragmentary elucidation of some Spinozist ontological principles entitled <i>Study After Spinoza</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> Moreover, he cited Spinoza alongside Shakespeare and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> as one of the three strongest influences on his life and work.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup></li>
<li>The 20th century novelist <a href="/wiki/W._Somerset_Maugham" title="W. Somerset Maugham">W. Somerset Maugham</a> alluded to one of Spinoza's central concepts with the title of his novel <i><a href="/wiki/Of_Human_Bondage" title="Of Human Bondage">Of Human Bondage</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>In the early <a href="/wiki/Star_Trek" title="Star Trek">Star Trek</a> episode, "<a href="/wiki/Where_No_Man_Has_Gone_Before" title="Where No Man Has Gone Before">Where No Man Has Gone Before</a>", the antagonist, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Mitchell_(Star_Trek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gary Mitchell (Star Trek)">Gary Mitchell</a> is seen reading Spinoza, and Mitchell's remark regarding his ease in comprehending Spinoza implies that his intellectual capacity is increasing dramatically. The dialogue indicates that <a href="/wiki/James_T._Kirk" title="James T. Kirk">Captain Kirk</a> is familiar with Spinoza's work, perhaps as part of his studies at <a href="/wiki/Starfleet_Academy" title="Starfleet Academy">Starfleet Academy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his <a href="/wiki/World_view" title="World view">world view</a> (<i>Weltanschauung</i>). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity. In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Goldstein" title="Herbert S. Goldstein">Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein</a> whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings."<sup id="cite_ref-tws9903_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9903-132">[132]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></li>
<li>Spinoza's pantheism has also influenced environmental theory; <a href="/wiki/Arne_N%C3%A6ss" title="Arne Næss">Arne Næss</a>, the father of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">deep ecology</a> movement, acknowledged Spinoza as an important inspiration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>The Argentine writer <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a> was greatly influenced by Spinoza's world view. Borges makes allusions to the philosopher's work in many of his poems and short stories, as does <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a> in his short story <i>The Spinoza of Market Street</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup></li>
<li>The title character of <i>Hoffman's Hunger</i>, the fifth novel by the Dutch novelist <a href="/wiki/Leon_de_Winter" title="Leon de Winter">Leon de Winter</a>, reads and comments upon the <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_de_Intellectus_Emendatione" title="Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione">Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione</a></i> over the course of the novel.</li>
<li>Spinoza has been the subject of numerous biographies and scholarly treatises.<sup id="cite_ref-tws9902_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9902-110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9910_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9910-135">[135]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9901_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9901-136">[136]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9908_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9908-137">[137]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Spinoza is an important historical figure in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, where his portrait was featured prominently on the Dutch 1000-<a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">guilder</a> <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal tender</a> until the euro was introduced in 2002. The highest and most prestigious scientific award of the Netherlands is named the <a href="/wiki/Spinoza_Prize" title="Spinoza Prize"><i>Spinozaprijs</i> (Spinoza prize)</a>. Spinoza was included in a 50 theme canon that attempts to summarise the history of the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup></li>
<li>Spinoza's life has been honoured by educators.<sup id="cite_ref-tws9990_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9990-139">[139]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>In the sequel to <a href="/wiki/Eric_Flint" title="Eric Flint">Eric Flint</a>'s alternate-history novel, <i><a href="/wiki/1632_(novel)" title="1632 (novel)">1632</a></i>, a Jewish man and his wife are killed during an attack on Amsterdam, leaving behind a less-than-year-old son. The identity of the child is quickly revealed to be the infant Spinoza himself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>The 2008 play "New Jerusalem", by <a href="/wiki/David_Ives" title="David Ives">David Ives</a>, is based on the cherem (ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion or excommunication) issued against Spinoza by the Talmud Torah congregation in Amsterdam in 1656, and events leading to it. Ives speculates that Spinoza was excommunicated in order to appease Dutch authorities who threatened to expel Amsterdam's Jews because of Spinoza's anti-religious activities amongst the city's Christian community.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup></li>
<li>In <i>Bento's Sketchbook</i> (2011), the writer <a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">John Berger</a> combines extracts from Spinoza, sketches, memoir, and observations in a book that contemplates the relationship of materialism to spirituality. According to Berger, what could be seen as a contradiction "is beautifully resolved by Spinoza, who shows that it is not a duality, but in fact an essential unity."<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1660</span>. <i><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/nl:Korte_Verhandeling_van_God,_de_mensch_en_deszelvs_welstand" class="extiw" title="s:nl:Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand">Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand</a></i> (<i>A Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being</i>).</li>
<li>1662. <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_de_Intellectus_Emendatione" title="Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione">Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione</a></i> (<i>On the Improvement of the Understanding</i>).</li>
<li>1663. <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_philosophiae_cartesianae" title="Principia philosophiae cartesianae">Principia philosophiae cartesianae</a></i> (<i>The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy</i>, translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Rice, Indianapolis, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k943625">Gallica</a> (in Latin).</li>
<li>1670. <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a></i> (A Theologico-Political Treatise).</li>
<li>1675–76. <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus">Tractatus Politicus</a></i> (unfinished) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spinozacsack.net78.net/Political%20Treatise,%20Benedict%20de%20Spinoza.pdf">PDF version</a>)</li>
<li>1677. <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata</a></i> (<i>The Ethics</i>, finished 1674, but published posthumously)</li>
<li>1677. <i>Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae</i> (Hebrew Grammar).<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup></li>
<li>Morgan, Michael L. (ed.), 2002. <i>Spinoza: Complete Works</i>, with the Translation of Samuel Shirley, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780872206205" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-87220-620-5</a>.</li>
<li>Edwin Curley (ed.) 1985-2016. <i>The Collected Works of Spinoza</i> (two volumes), Princeton: Princeton University Press.</li>
<li>Spruit, Leen 2011. <i>The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza’s Ethica</i>, Leiden: Brill.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em">
<table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px">
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:P_vip.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" width="18" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg/32px-Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg.png" width="32" height="21" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg/48px-Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg/64px-Flag_of_Amsterdam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Amsterdam" title="Portal:Amsterdam">Amsterdam portal</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Criticism of Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Baruch_Spinoza" title="Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza">Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plane_of_immanence" title="Plane of immanence">Plane of immanence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Nadler, <i>Spinoza and Medieval Jewish Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 27: "Spinoza attended lectures and anatomical dissections at the University of Leiden..."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 2: "Through the works of Moses Maimonides and the commentaries of the Arab Averroës, Spinoza would have become acquainted with Aristotle."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws908-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Anthony Gottlieb. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html">"God Exists, Philosophically (review of "Spinoza: A Life" by Steven Nadler)"</a>. The New York Times, Books. 18 July 1999<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=God+Exists%2C+Philosophically+%28review+of+%22Spinoza%3A+A+Life%22+by+Steven+Nadler%29&amp;rft.au=Anthony+Gottlieb&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F99%2F07%2F18%2Freviews%2F990718.18gottlit.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spinoza">"Spinoza"</a> entry in <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>, HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9907-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9907_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Yalom, Irvin (21 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-02-21/entertainment/35442915_1_history-teacher-novel-theories">"The Spinoza Problem"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=The+Spinoza+Problem&amp;rft.aufirst=Irvin&amp;rft.aulast=Yalom&amp;rft.date=2012-02-21&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.washingtonpost.com%2F2012-02-21%2Fentertainment%2F35442915_1_history-teacher-novel-theories&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yovel, Yirmiyahu, <i>Spinoza and Other Heretics: The Adventures of Immanence</i> (<a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1992), p. 3</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9906-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9906_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newrepublic.com/book/review/book-forged-hell-spinoza-treatise-steven-nadler">"Destroyer and Builder"</a>. <i>The New Republic</i>. 3 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Destroyer+and+Builder&amp;rft.date=2012-05-03&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newrepublic.com%2Fbook%2Freview%2Fbook-forged-hell-spinoza-treatise-steven-nadler&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 2, p.26</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.32.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Hegel.27s_History_of_Philosophy-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hegel.27s_History_of_Philosophy_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=ESNZ3TUdN40C&amp;pg=PA144&amp;lpg=PA144&amp;dq=%22you+are+either+a+spinozist+or+not+a+philosopher+at+all%22"><i>Hegel's History of Philosophy</i></a>. Google Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513033919/https://books.google.com/books?id=ESNZ3TUdN40C&amp;pg=PA144&amp;lpg=PA144&amp;dq=%22you+are+either+a+spinozist+or+not+a+philosopher+at+all%22&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=XRsqJEbyNT&amp;sig=bCClaJ9V6lL_CJbOR-S3zaGwHqo&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ct=result">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Hegel%27s+History+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DESNZ3TUdN40C%26pg%3DPA144%26lpg%3DPA144%26dq%3D%2522you%2Bare%2Beither%2Ba%2Bspinozist%2Bor%2Bnot%2Ba%2Bphilosopher%2Bat%2Ball%2522&amp;rft.pub=Google+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in the translator's preface of Deleuze <i>Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza</i> (1990).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">de Spinoza, Benedictus; Hessing, Siegfried (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M3muAAAAIAAJ"><i>Speculum Spinozanum, 1677-1977</i></a>. Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul. p.&#160;828.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Benedictus&amp;rft.au=Hessing%2C+Siegfried&amp;rft.aulast=de+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Speculum+Spinozanum%2C+1677-1977&amp;rft.date=1977&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM3muAAAAIAAJ&amp;rft.pages=828&amp;rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M3muAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=Nieuwe+Kerk">Snipped view of page 828</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magnusson 1990.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.15.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.19.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Javier Muguerza in his <i>Desde la perplejidad</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ben-Menahem, Ari, <i>Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Volume 1</i> (Springer, 2009), p. 1095.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.20. (Scruton states that only Baruch and Rebekah reached adulthood, but Baruch's younger brother Gabriel apparently did as well.)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel, J. (1998), The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806, Oxford, Oxford University Press, p. 4, p. 583, p. 677, p. 917.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Dijn, Herman, <i>Spinoza: The Way to Wisdom</i> (Purdue University Press, 1996), pp. 3 &amp; 4.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler, Steven, <i>Spinoza: A Life</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 195.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curley, Edwin, "Spinoza's exchange with Albert Burgh", in Melamed &amp; Rosenthal (eds.), <i>Spinoza's</i> Theological-Political Treatise<i>: A Critical Guide</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 11–28.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historische Gids van Amsterdam, opnieuw bewerkt door Mr H.F. Wijnman, p. 205; Vaz Dias A.M. &amp; W.G. van der Tak (1932) Spinoza, Merchant &amp; autodidact, p. 140, 174-175. Reprint in: Studia Resenthaliana. Vol. XVI, number 2, 1982.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Die Lebensgeschichte Spinozas. Zweite, stark erweiterte und vollständig neu kommentierte Auflage der Ausgabe von Jakob Freudenthal 1899. M. e. Bibliographie hg. v. Manfred Walther unter Mitarbeit v. Michael Czelinski. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Bad Canstatt: frommann-holzboog, 2006. (Specula 4,1 – 4,2.) Erläuterungen. S. 98, 119.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.23 (his mother's death when he was six years old).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Nadler, Spinoza: A Life, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 47</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.8.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-See_Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.1</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, pp.20-21; Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.27, n.27, p.189.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Frank Mertens, Ghent University (30 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.telenet.be/fvde/Bio3.htm">"Franciscus van den Enden/Biography"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.au=Frank+Mertens%2C+Ghent+University&amp;rft.btitle=Franciscus+van+den+Enden%2FBiography&amp;rft.date=2009-06-30&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.telenet.be%2Ffvde%2FBio3.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nadler_2001.2C_ch.1.2C_p.1_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Strathern, Paul (25 September 1998). <i>Spinoza in 90 Minutes</i>. Ivan R. Dee. pp.&#160;24–25. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56663-215-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56663-215-7">978-1-56663-215-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.au=Strathern%2C+Paul&amp;rft.btitle=Spinoza+in+90+Minutes&amp;rft.date=1998-09-25&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56663-215-7&amp;rft.pages=24-25&amp;rft.pub=Ivan+R.+Dee&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.21; Nadler 2001 ch.2 p.27, n.27, p.189.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johannes Colerus, The Life of Benedict de Sponisa (London: Benjamin Bragg, 1706) 4</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.20.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Benedictus de Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus: Gebhardt Edition (E.J. Brill 1989), p. 179 (available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y3Cd7Yd73esC&amp;pg=PA186&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=y3Cd7Yd73esC&amp;pg=PA186&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.2, pp.26-27.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ts66-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ts66_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Nadler, Spinoza: A Life, Cambridge University Press; 1 edition (23 April 2001), <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521002936" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-521-00293-6</a>, Page: 120</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yitzhak Melamed, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University, speaking at an Artistic Director's Roundtable, Theater J, Washington D.C., 18 March 2012. See also Nadler 2001, ch. 1, p.7.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.2.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven B. Smith, <i>Spinoza's book of life: freedom and redemption in the Ethics</i>, Yale University Press (1 December 2003), p.xx/Introduction <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j0dMphwIwQ8C&amp;pg=PT19&amp;lpg=PT19&amp;dq=cherem+-+spinoza+-+unknown&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=OPBy3G58Jj&amp;sig=B4K5gEHFfPBwKtnK0kPxfqeE2mY&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=LlJITLe9FMT7lweKpMWbCw&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=2&amp;ved=0CBcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=cherem%20-%20spinoza%20-%20unknown&amp;f=false">google books</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Nadler, Baruch Spinoza, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, First published Fri 29 June 2001; substantive revision Mon 1 December 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/#Bio">plato.standord.eu</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch. 2, pp. 17–22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.19.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.20.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Nadler 2001, ch.2, pp.19-21.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.28, n.28, p.189.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadler 2001, ch.2, pp.25-25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yitzhak_Melamed_2012_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yitzhak Melamed, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University, speaking at an Artistic Director's Roundtable, Theater J, Washington D.C., 18 March 2012.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Simon Rocker (August 28, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejc.com/judaism/judaism-features/121838/why-baruch-spinoza-still-excommunicated">"Why Baruch Spinoza is still excommunicated"</a>. <i>The Jewish Chronicle Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Baruch+Spinoza+is+still+excommunicated&amp;rft.au=Simon+Rocker&amp;rft.date=2014-08-28&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejc.com%2Fjudaism%2Fjudaism-features%2F121838%2Fwhy-baruch-spinoza-still-excommunicated&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Chronicle+Online&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-God_Exists.2C_Philosophically_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">GOTTLIEB, ANTHONY. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html">"God Exists, Philosophically"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i> (The New York Times)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=God+Exists%2C+Philosophically&amp;rft.aufirst=ANTHONY&amp;rft.aulast=GOTTLIEB&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F99%2F07%2F18%2Freviews%2F990718.18gottlit.html&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.23.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.24.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.25-26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"…he [Spinoza] told me [Leibniz] he had a strong desire, on the day of the massacre of Mess. De Witt, to sally forth at night, and put up somewhere, near the place of the massacre, a paper with the words <i>Ultimi barbarorum</i> [ultimate barbarity]. But his host had shut the house to prevent his going out, for he would have run the risk of being torn to pieces." (<i>A Refutation Recently Discovered of Spinoza by Leibnitz</i>, "Remarks on the Unpublished Refutation of Spinoza by Leibnitz," Edinburg: Thomas Constable and Company, 1855. Page 70. Available on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cCYCAAAAQAAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=refutation+recently+discovered&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=AwLaT5aoN4OI6AHe6NnLAg&amp;ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=refutation%20recently%20discovered&amp;f=false">Google Books</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiaan Huygens, <i>Oeuvres complètes</i>, Letter No. 1638, 11 May 1668</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiaan Huygens, <i>aOeuvres complètes</i>, letter to his brother 23 September 1667</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Nadler, Spinoza: A Life (2001) p.183</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiaan Huygens, <i>Oeuvres complètes</i>, vol. XXII, p. 732, footnote</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodore Kerckring, "Spicilegium Anatomicum" Observatio XCIII (1670)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chauí 1995 (2001 ed.), ch. 1, pp. 30-31: |A commentary on Descartes' work, Principles of Cartesian Philosophy, only work published under his own name, brought him on an invitation to teach philosophy at the University of Heidelberg. Spinoza, however, refused, thinking that it might be demanded the renouncement of his freedom of thought, for the invite stipulated that all care should be taken to "not insult the principles of the established religion"."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Lucas1960-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas1960_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas, 1960.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.29.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9914-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9914_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Special Features (5 December 1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60A14F73C5F147A93C7A91789D95F428285F9">"Shrine will be made of old Spinoza home; Society That Bears His Name Seeks Fund to Buy Dwelling of Great Philosopher at The Hague on the 250th Anniversary of His Death"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Shrine+will+be+made+of+old+Spinoza+home%3B+Society+That+Bears+His+Name+Seeks+Fund+to+Buy+Dwelling+of+Great+Philosopher+at+The+Hague+on+the+250th+Anniversary+of+His+Death&amp;rft.au=Special+Features&amp;rft.date=1926-12-05&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF60A14F73C5F147A93C7A91789D95F428285F9&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9911-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9911_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Phelps, M. Stuart (21 February 1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=nwng;cc=nwng;rgn=full%20text;idno=nwng0037-6;didno=nwng0037-6;view=image;seq=00777;node=nwng0037-6%3A1">"Spinoza. Oration by M. Ernest Renan, delivered at the Hague, February 21, 1877 by Translated by M. Stuart Phelps [pp. 763-776]"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Englander_and_Yale_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="New Englander and Yale Review">New Englander and Yale Review</a> Volume 0037 Issue 147 (November 1878)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Spinoza.+Oration+by+M.+Ernest+Renan%2C+delivered+at+the+Hague%2C+February+21%2C+1877+by+Translated+by+M.+Stuart+Phelps+%5Bpp.+763-776%5D&amp;rft.au=Phelps%2C+M.+Stuart&amp;rft.date=1877-02-21&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Fpageviewer-idx%3Fc%3Dnwng%3Bcc%3Dnwng%3Brgn%3Dfull%2520text%3Bidno%3Dnwng0037-6%3Bdidno%3Dnwng0037-6%3Bview%3Dimage%3Bseq%3D00777%3Bnode%3Dnwng0037-6%253A1&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9912-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9912_83-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Harold Bloom (book reviewer) (16 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/16/arts/16iht-idside17.1986759.html">"Deciphering Spinoza, the Great Original -- Book review of "Betraying Spinoza. The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity." By Rebecca Goldstein"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Deciphering+Spinoza%2C+the+Great+Original+--+Book+review+of+%22Betraying+Spinoza.+The+Renegade+Jew+Who+Gave+Us+Modernity.%22+By+Rebecca+Goldstein&amp;rft.au=Harold+Bloom+%28book+reviewer%29&amp;rft.date=2006-06-16&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2006%2F06%2F16%2Farts%2F16iht-idside17.1986759.html&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9913-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9913_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9407E0DD143EE73BBC4F52DFB5668383669FDE">"How Spinoza lived"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 17 March 1878<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=How+Spinoza+lived&amp;rft.date=1878-03-17&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3D9407E0DD143EE73BBC4F52DFB5668383669FDE&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Popkin, Richard H., "Spinoza de Spinoza" in <i>The Columbia History of Western Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 1999), p. 381.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9904-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws9904_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9904_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Lisa Montanarelli (book reviewer) (8 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/08/RVGO9GEOKH1.DTL">"Spinoza stymies 'God's attorney' -- Stewart argues the secular world was at stake in Leibniz face off"</a>. <i>San Francisco Chronicle</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Spinoza+stymies+%27God%27s+attorney%27+--+Stewart+argues+the+secular+world+was+at+stake+in+Leibniz+face+off&amp;rft.au=Lisa+Montanarelli+%28book+reviewer%29&amp;rft.date=2006-01-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ff%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F01%2F08%2FRVGO9GEOKH1.DTL&amp;rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC27375057&amp;id=cQUZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1&amp;lpg=PA1&amp;dq=leibniz&amp;as_brr=1#PPP10,M1">Refutation of Spinoza</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart, Matthew, <i>The Courtier and the Heretic</i> (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 2006), p. 106.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Spinoza</i>, Karl Jaspers p.9</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/#4">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/#4</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i>, Part IV, preface: "<i>Deus seu Natura</i>".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://philosophy.lander.edu/intro/spinoza.shtml">http://philosophy.lander.edu/intro/spinoza.shtml</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/#3">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/#3</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baruch Spinoza. <i>Ethics</i>, in <i>Spinoza: Complete Works</i>, trans. by Samuel Shirley and ed. by Michael L. Morgan (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2002), see Part I, Proposition 33.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ethics</i>, Part I, Proposition 6.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ethics</i>, Pt. I, Prop. XXXVI, Appendix: "[M]en think themselves free inasmuch as they are conscious of their volitions and desires, and never even dream, in their ignorance, of the causes which have disposed them so to wish and desire."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ethics</i>, Part III, Proposition 2.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Scruton, <i>Spinoza, A very Short Introduction</i>, p.86</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html">http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Spinoza, Benedict. <i>The Ethics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Benedict&amp;rft.aulast=Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethics&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Picton, J. Allanson, "Pantheism: Its Story and Significance", 1905</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fraser, Alexander Campbell "Philosophy of Theism", William Blackwood and Sons, 1895, p 163</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Correspondence of Benedict de Spinoza, Wilder Publications (26 March 2009), <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781604591569" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-60459-156-9</a>, letter 73</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ts64-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ts64_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ts64_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Jaspers, Spinoza (Great Philosophers), Harvest Books (23 October 1974), <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780156847308" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-15-684730-8</a>, Pages: 14 and 95</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ts65-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ts65_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ts65_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Genevieve Lloyd, Routledge Philosophy GuideBook to Spinoza and The Ethics (Routledge Philosophy Guidebooks), Routledge; 1 edition (2 October 1996), <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415107822" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-10782-2</a>, Page: 40</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lange, Frederick Albert (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmateria02lang"><i>History of Materialism and Criticism of its Present Importance, Vol. II</i></a>. Boston: Houghton, Osgood, &amp; Co. p.&#160;147<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick+Albert&amp;rft.aulast=Lange&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+Materialism+and+Criticism+of+its+Present+Importance%2C+Vol.+II&amp;rft.date=1880&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmateria02lang&amp;rft.pages=147&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Osgood%2C+%26+Co.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Pantheism of Spinoza Dr. Smith regarded as the most dangerous enemy of Christianity, and as he announced his conviction that it had gained the control of the schools, press and pulpit of the Old World [Europe], and was rapidly gaining the same control of the New [United States], his alarm and indignation sometimes rose to the eloquence of genuine passion." <i>Memorial of the Rev. Henry Smith, D.D., LL D., Professor of Sacred Rhetoric and Pastoral Theology in <a href="/wiki/Lane_Theological_Seminary" title="Lane Theological Seminary">Lane Theological Seminary</a>, Consisting of Addresses on Occasion of the Anniversary of the Seminary, May 8th, 1879, Together with Commemorative Resolutions</i>, p. 26.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9902-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws9902_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws9902_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Hutchison, Percy (20 November 1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40A14F83A5513738DDDA90A94D9415B828FF1D3">"Spinoza, "God-Intoxicated Man"; Three Books Which Mark the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosopher's Birth Blessed Spinoza. A Biography. By Lewis Browne. 319 pp. New York: The Macmillan Company. $4. Spinoza . Liberator of God and Man. By Benjamin De Casseres, 145pp. New York: E. Wickham Sweetland. $2. <i>Spinoza the Biospher Pinoza</i>. By Frederick Kettner. Introduc- tion by Nicholas Roerich, New Era Library. 255 pp. New York: Roerich Museum Press. $2.50. Spinoza"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Spinoza%2C+%22God-Intoxicated+Man%22%3B+Three+Books+Which+Mark+the+Three+Hundredth+Anniversary+of+the+Philosopher%27s+Birth+Blessed+Spinoza.+A+Biography.+By+Lewis+Browne.+319+pp.+New+York%3A+The+Macmillan+Company.+%244.+Spinoza+.+Liberator+of+God+and+Man.+By+Benjamin+De+Casseres%2C+145pp.+New+York%3A+E.+Wickham+Sweetland.+%242.+Spinoza+the+Biospher+Pinoza.+By+Frederick+Kettner.+Introduc-+tion+by+Nicholas+Roerich%2C+New+Era+Library.+255+pp.+New+York%3A+Roerich+Museum+Press.+%242.50.+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Percy&amp;rft.aulast=Hutchison&amp;rft.date=1932-11-20&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF40A14F83A5513738DDDA90A94D9415B828FF1D3&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Thilly, <i>A History of Philosophy</i>, § 47, Holt &amp; Co., New York, 1914</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings." These words were spoken by Albert Einstein, upon being asked if he believed in God by Rabbi Herbert Goldstein of the Institutional Synagogue, New York, 24 April 1921, published in the New York Times, 25 April 1929; from <i>Einstein: The Life and Times</i> Ronald W. Clark, New York: World Publishing Co., 1971, p. 413; also cited as a telegram to a Jewish newspaper, 1929, Einstein Archive 33-272, from Alice Calaprice, ed., <i>The Expanded Quotable Einstein</i>, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-stanford-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanford_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pantheism/#Per">"Pantheism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. plato.stanford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Pantheism+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpantheism%2F%23Per&amp;rft.pub=plato.stanford.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/#GodNat">"Baruch Spinoza (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. Plato.stanford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Baruch+Spinoza+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fspinoza%2F%23GodNat&amp;rft.pub=Plato.stanford.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.P Blavatsky's Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages 308-310. Quest Books</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deleuze, 1968.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nietzsche, Friedrich, "FOURTH DIVISION Concerning the Soul of Artists and Authors", in <i>Human, All-Too-Human: Parts One and Two: Pt. I&amp;II</i> (Dover Philosophical Classics), Kindle Edition (2012-03-15), Aphorism 157, p. 95.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nietzsche, Friedrich, "EIGHTH DIVISION A Glance at the State", in <i>Human, All-Too-Human: Parts One and Two: Pt. I&amp;II</i> (Dover Philosophical Classics), Kindle Edition (2012-03-15), Aphorism 475, p. 204.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nietzsche, Friedrich, "PART I Miscellaneous Maxims and Opinions", in <i>Human, All-Too-Human: Parts One and Two: Pt. I&amp;II</i> (Dover Philosophical Classics), Kindle Edition (2012-03-15), Aphorism 408, p. 356.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Urs_Sommer" title="Andreas Urs Sommer">Andreas Urs Sommer</a>: Nietzsche’s Readings on Spinoza. A Contextualist Study, Particularly on the Reception of Kuno Fischer, in: <i>Journal of Nietzsche Studies</i> 43/2 (2012), pp. 156-184.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Santayana, "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", <i>The Harvard Monthly</i>, 2 (June 1886: 144–52)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Santayana, "Introduction", in <i>Spinoza's Ethics and "De intellectus emendatione"</i>(London: Dent, 1910, vii–xxii)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Santayana, "Ultimate Religion", in <i>Obiter Scripta</i>, eds. Justus Buchler and Benjamin Schwartz (New York and London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936) 280-297.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Santayana, <i>Persons and Places</i> (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1986) 233–36.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel, J. (2001) Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750, Oxford, Oxford University Press, p159.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/4500/Politiek/article/detail/3282363/2012/07/05/Van-der-Ham-biedt-Verbeet-Spinoza-aan---voor-naast-Bijbel-en-Koran.dhtml">"Van der Ham biedt Verbeet Spinoza aan"</a>. RTL Nieuws. 5 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Van+der+Ham+biedt+Verbeet+Spinoza+aan&amp;rft.date=2012-07-05&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trouw.nl%2Ftr%2Fnl%2F4500%2FPolitiek%2Farticle%2Fdetail%2F3282363%2F2012%2F07%2F05%2FVan-der-Ham-biedt-Verbeet-Spinoza-aan---voor-naast-Bijbel-en-Koran.dhtml&amp;rft.pub=RTL+Nieuws&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513034307/http://www.textlog.de/41473.html">"Goethe: Studie nach Spinoza - Aufsätze und Rezensionen"</a>. Textlog.de. 30 October 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textlog.de/41473.html">the original</a> on 13 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Goethe%3A+Studie+nach+Spinoza+-+Aufs%C3%A4tze+und+Rezensionen&amp;rft.date=2007-10-30&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.textlog.de%2F41473.html&amp;rft.pub=Textlog.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_3.html">"Linné on line - What people have said about Linnaeus"</a>. Linnaeus.uu.se. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110608101238/http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_3.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Linn%C3%A9+on+line+-+What+people+have+said+about+Linnaeus&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linnaeus.uu.se%2Fonline%2Flife%2F8_3.html&amp;rft.pub=Linnaeus.uu.se&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9903-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9903_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B1EFC3E54167A93C7AB178FD85F4D8285F9">"Einstein believes in "Spinoza's God"; Scientist Defines His Faith in Reply, to Cablegram From Rabbi Here. Sees a Divine Order But Says Its Ruler Is Not Concerned "Wit [sic] Fates and Actions of Human Beings.<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 25 April 1929<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Einstein+believes+in+%22Spinoza%27s+God%22%3B+Scientist+Defines+His+Faith+in+Reply%2C+to+Cablegram+From+Rabbi+Here.+Sees+a+Divine+Order+But+Says+Its+Ruler+Is+Not+Concerned+%22Wit+%5Bsic%5D+Fates+and+Actions+of+Human+Beings.%22&amp;rft.date=1929-04-25&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF10B1EFC3E54167A93C7AB178FD85F4D8285F9&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay-einsteins-third-paradise.htm">"Einstein's Third Paradise, by Gerald Holton"</a>. Aip.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110522061107/http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay-einsteins-third-paradise.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Einstein%27s+Third+Paradise%2C+by+Gerald+Holton&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Feinstein%2Fessay-einsteins-third-paradise.htm&amp;rft.pub=Aip.org&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Whx4wgXnp5EC&amp;pg=PA3&amp;lpg=PA3&amp;ots=k4L_QadzfL&amp;dq=%22spinoza+of+market+street%22&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;output=html"><i>Spinoza of Market Street and Other ... - Google Books</i></a>. Google Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513034131/https://books.google.com/books?id=Whx4wgXnp5EC&amp;pg=PA3&amp;lpg=PA3&amp;ots=k4L_QadzfL&amp;dq=%22spinoza+of+market+street%22&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;output=html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Spinoza+of+Market+Street+and+Other+...+-+Google+Books&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWhx4wgXnp5EC%26pg%3DPA3%26lpg%3DPA3%26ots%3Dk4L_QadzfL%26dq%3D%2522spinoza%2Bof%2Bmarket%2Bstreet%2522%26ie%3DISO-8859-1%26output%3Dhtml&amp;rft.pub=Google+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9910-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9910_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D1EFF395C147A93C3A81789D95F438285F9">"Spinoza's First Biography Is Recovered; The oldest biography of Spinoza. Edited with Translations, Introduction, Annotations, &amp;c., by A. Wolf. 196 pp. New York: Lincoln Macveagh. The Dial Press."</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 11 December 1927<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Spinoza%27s+First+Biography+Is+Recovered%3B+The+oldest+biography+of+Spinoza.+Edited+with+Translations%2C+Introduction%2C+Annotations%2C+%26c.%2C+by+A.+Wolf.+196+pp.+New+York%3A+Lincoln+Macveagh.+The+Dial+Press.&amp;rft.date=1927-12-11&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF60D1EFF395C147A93C3A81789D95F438285F9&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9901-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9901_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Irwin Edman (22 July 1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0610FC395D13728DDDAB0A94DF405B848FF1D3">"The Unique and Powerful Vision of Baruch Spinoza; Professor Wolfson's Long-Awaited Book Is a Work of Illuminating Scholarship. (Book review) <i>The Philosophy of Spinoza</i>. By Henry Austryn Wolfson"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=The+Unique+and+Powerful+Vision+of+Baruch+Spinoza%3B+Professor+Wolfson%27s+Long-Awaited+Book+Is+a+Work+of+Illuminating+Scholarship.+%28Book+review%29+The+Philosophy+of+Spinoza.+By+Henry+Austryn+Wolfson&amp;rft.au=Irwin+Edman&amp;rft.date=1934-07-22&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DFB0610FC395D13728DDDAB0A94DF405B848FF1D3&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9908-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9908_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Cummings, M E (8 September 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/370934682.html?dids=370934682:370934682&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;type=historic&amp;date=Sep+08%2C+1929&amp;author=&amp;pub=Los+Angeles+Times&amp;desc=ROTH+EVALUATES+SPINOZA&amp;pqatl=google">"Roth Evaluates Spinoza"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Roth+Evaluates+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=M+E&amp;rft.aulast=Cummings&amp;rft.date=1929-09-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpqasb.pqarchiver.com%2Flatimes%2Faccess%2F370934682.html%3Fdids%3D370934682%3A370934682%26FMT%3DABS%26FMTS%3DABS%3AAI%26type%3Dhistoric%26date%3DSep%2B08%252C%2B1929%26author%3D%26pub%3DLos%2BAngeles%2BTimes%26desc%3DROTH%2BEVALUATES%2BSPINOZA%26pqatl%3Dgoogle&amp;rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.entoen.nu/">"Entoen.nu"</a>. Entoen.nu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513033928/http://www.entoen.nu/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Entoen.nu&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.entoen.nu%2F&amp;rft.pub=Entoen.nu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-tws9990-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9990_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Richard H. Popkin (2004). "Spinoza".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Spinoza&amp;rft.au=Richard+H.+Popkin&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|access-date=</code> requires <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ives 2009.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berger, John. Qtd. in Nicholas Wroe, "John Berger: A Life in Writing." The Guardian online. 23 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2011/apr/23/john-berger-life-in-writing">http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2011/apr/23/john-berger-life-in-writing</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See G. Licata, "Spinoza e la cognitio universalis dell'ebraico. Demistificazione e speculazione grammaticale nel Compendio di grammatica ebraica", Giornale di Metafisica, 3 (2009), pp. 625–661.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Albiac" class="extiw" title="es:Gabriel Albiac">Albiac, Gabriel</a>, 1987. <i>La sinagoga vacía: un estudio de las fuentes marranas del espinosismo</i>. <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hiperion.com/">Hiperión D.L.</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788475172149" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-84-7517-214-9</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Balibar, Étienne</a>, 1985. <i>Spinoza et la politique</i> ("Spinoza and politics") Paris: <a href="/wiki/University_Presses_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="University Presses of France">PUF</a>.</li>
<li>Bennett, Jonathan, 1984. <i>A Study of Spinoza's Ethics</i>. Hackett.</li>
<li>Boucher, Wayne I., 1999. <i>Spinoza in English: A Bibliography from the Seventeenth Century to the Present</i>. 2nd edn. Thoemmes Press.</li>
<li>Boucher, Wayne I., ed., 1999. <i>Spinoza: Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century Discussions</i>. 6 vols. Thoemmes Press.</li>
<li>Carlisle, Claire. "Questioning Transcendence, Teleology and Truth" in <i>Kierkegaard and the Renaissance and Modern Traditions</i> (ed. Jon Stewart. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2009).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marilena_de_Souza_Chaui" title="Marilena de Souza Chaui">Chauí, Marilena</a> Espinosa: uma filosofia da liberdade. São Paulo: Editora Moderna, 1995. 111p.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">Damásio, António</a>, 2003. Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, Harvest Books, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780156028714" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-15-602871-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>, 1968. <i>Spinoza et le problème de l'expression</i>. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza" Martin Joughin (New York: Zone Books).</li>
<li>———, 1970. <i>Spinoza: Philosophie pratique</i>. Transl. "<a href="/wiki/Spinoza:_Practical_Philosophy" title="Spinoza: Practical Philosophy">Spinoza: Practical Philosophy</a>".</li>
<li>———, 1990. <i>Negotiations</i> trans. Martin Joughin (New York: Columbia University Press).</li>
<li>Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. <i>Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195095623" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-509562-3</a></li>
<li>Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza</i>. Cambridge Uni. Press.</li>
<li>Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. <i>Collective imaginings&#160;: Spinoza, past and present</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415165709" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-16570-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415165716" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-16571-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Goldstein" title="Rebecca Goldstein">Goldstein, Rebecca</a>, 2006. <i>Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity</i>. Schocken. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805211597" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8052-1159-7</a></li>
<li>Goode, Francis, 2012. <i>Life of Spinoza</i>. Smashwords edition. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466133990" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-4661-3399-0</a></li>
<li>Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. <i>Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza</i>. Jonathan Cape. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780224050463" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-224-05046-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hampshire" title="Stuart Hampshire">Hampshire, Stuart</a>, 1951. Spinoza and Spinozism, OUP, 2005 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199279548" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-927954-8</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Hardt, Michael</a>, trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available here: <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611234714/http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355">"Multitudes Web - 01. Préface à L'Anomalie sauvage de Negri"</a>. Multitudes.samizdat.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355">the original</a> on 11 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.btitle=Multitudes+Web+-+01.+Pr%C3%A9face+%C3%A0+L%27Anomalie+sauvage+de+Negri&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmultitudes.samizdat.net%2Farticle.php3%3Fid_article%3D1355&amp;rft.pub=Multitudes.samizdat.net&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a>, 2001. <i>The Radical Enlightenment</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li>
<li>———, 2006. <i>Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752</i>, (<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199279227" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-927922-7</a> hardback)</li>
<li>Ives 2009: Ives, David, "New Jerusalem: The Interrogation of Baruch de Spinoza at Talmud Torah Congregation: Amsterdam, July 27, 1656," 2009 (Dramatists Play Service, Inc., New York, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822223856" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8222-2385-6</a>).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Kasher" title="Asa Kasher">Kasher, Asa</a>, and Shlomo Biderman. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/~kasher/pspin.htm">Why Was Baruch de Spinoza Excommunicated?</a>"</li>
<li>Kayser, Rudolf, 1946, with an introduction by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. <i>Spinoza: Portrait of a Spiritual Hero</i>. New York: The Philosophical Library.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Genevieve_Lloyd" title="Genevieve Lloyd">Lloyd, Genevieve</a>, 1996. <i>Spinoza and the Ethics</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415107815" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-10781-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415107822" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-415-10782-2</a></li>
<li>LeBuffe, Michael. 2010. <i>Spinoza and Human Freedom</i>. Oxford University Press.</li>
<li>Lucas, P. G., 1960. "Some Speculative and Critical Philosophers", in I. Levine (ed.), <i>Philosophy</i> (London: Odhams)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_O._Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur O. Lovejoy">Lovejoy, Arthur O.</a>, 1936. "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his <i>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a></i>. Harvard University Press: 144-82 (<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674361539" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-674-36153-9</a>). Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. <i>Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays</i>. Anchor Books.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Macherey" title="Pierre Macherey">Macherey, Pierre</a>, 1977. <i>Hegel ou Spinoza</i>, Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004).</li>
<li>———, 1994-98. <i>Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza</i>. Paris: PUF.</li>
<li>Magnusson 1990: Magnusson, M (ed.), <i>Spinoza, Baruch</i>, Chambers Biographical Dictionary, Chambers 1990, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780550160416" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-550-16041-6</a>.</li>
<li>Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. <i>Individu et communauté chez Spinoza</i>, Paris: <a href="/wiki/Les_%C3%89ditions_de_Minuit" title="Les Éditions de Minuit">Minuit</a>.</li>
<li>Montag, Warren. <i>Bodies, Masses, Power: Spinoza and his Contemporaries.</i> (London: Verso, 2002).</li>
<li>Moreau, Pierre-François, 2003, <i>Spinoza et le spinozisme</i>, PUF (Presses Universitaires de France)</li>
<li>Nadler 1999: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a>, <i>Spinoza: A Life</i>, 1999 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge England, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521552103" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-521-55210-3</a>).</li>
<li>Nadler 2001: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a>, <i>Spinoza's Heresy: Immortality and the Jewish Mind</i>, 2001 (Oxford University Press, Oxford England, New York NY, reprinted 2004, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199268878" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-926887-8</a>).</li>
<li>Nadler 2006: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a>, <i>Spinoza's Ethics: An Introduction</i>, 2006 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge England, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521836203" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-521-83620-3</a>).</li>
<li>Nadler 2011: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/A-book-forged-in-hell-Steven-Nadler.php"><i>A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age</i></a>, 2011 (Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691139890" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-691-13989-0</a>).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri, Antonio</a>, 1991. <i>The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics</i>.</li>
<li>———, 2004. <i>Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations)</i>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Popkin" title="Richard Popkin">Popkin, R. H.</a>, 2004. <i>Spinoza</i> (Oxford: One World Publications)</li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Raia_Prokhovnik" title="Raia Prokhovnik">Prokhovnik, Raia</a> (2004). <i>Spinoza and republicanism</i>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0333733908" title="Special:BookSources/0333733908">0333733908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Raia&amp;rft.aulast=Prokhovnik&amp;rft.btitle=Spinoza+and+republicanism&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0333733908&amp;rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Ratner, Joseph, 1927. <i>The Philosophy of Spinoza</i> (The Modern Library: Random House)</li>
<li>Scruton 1986: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton, Roger</a>, <i>Spinoza: A Very Short Introduction</i>, 1986 (Oxford University Press, Oxford England), 2002 (reprinted as A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford England, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192803166" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-280316-6</a>).</li>
<li>Stewart, Matthew. <i>The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza and the Fate of God.</i> 2006. W. W. Norton</li>
<li>Stolze, Ted and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Montag" title="Warren Montag">Warren Montag</a> (eds.), <i>The New Spinoza</i>; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.</li>
<li>Strauss, Leo. <i>Persecution and the Art of Writing.</i> Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952. Reprint. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.</li>
<li>———ch. 5, "How to Study Spinoza's <i>Tractus Theologico-Politicus</i>;" reprinted in Strauss, <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity,</i> ed. Kenneth Hart Green (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1997), 181-233.</li>
<li>———<i>Spinoza's Critique of Religion.</i> New York: Schocken Books, 1965. Reprint. University of Chicago Press, 1996.</li>
<li>———, "Preface to the English Translation" reprinted as "Preface to Spinoza's Critique of Religion," in Strauss, <i>Liberalism Ancient and Modern</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1968, 224-59; also in Strauss, <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity</i>, 137-77).</li>
<li>Smilevski, Goce. <i>Conversation with SPINOZA.</i> Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 2006.</li>
<li>Williams, David Lay. 2010. "Spinoza and the General Will," <i>The Journal of Politics</i>, Vol. 72 (April): 341-56.</li>
<li>Wolfson, Henry A. "The Philosophy of Spinoza". 2 vols. Harvard University Press.</li>
<li>Yalom, I. (2012) The Spinoza Problem: A Novel. New York: Basic Books.</li>
<li>Yovel, Yirmiyahu, "Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 1: The Marrano of Reason." Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989.</li>
<li>Yovel, Yirmiyahu, "Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2: The Adventures of Immanence." Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20121120221603/http://cral.ehess.fr/index.php?/membres/doctorants/membres-associes/964-vinciguerra">Vinciguerra, Lorenzo</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scribd.com/doc/78866030/Lorenzo-Vinciguerra-Spinoza-in-French-Philosophy-Today"><i>Spinoza in French Philosophy Today</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today">Philosophy Today</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today/i2482527/vol-53-no-4-winter">Vol. 53, No. 4, Winter 2009</a>.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" width="34" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></b></i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="38" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works written by or about:<br />
<b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Benedictus_de_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Benedictus de Spinoza">Benedictus de Spinoza</a></i></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="commons:Baruch de Spinoza">Baruch de Spinoza</a></b></i>.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/spinoza">"<span style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</span>Benedict de Spinoza<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=%22Benedict+de+Spinoza%22&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fspinoza&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/spino-ep">"<span style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</span>Benedict de Spinoza: Epistemology<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=%22Benedict+de+Spinoza%3A+Epistemology%22&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fspino-ep&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/spinoz-m">"<span style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</span>Benedict de Spinoza: Metaphysics<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=%22Benedict+de+Spinoza%3A+Metaphysics%22&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fspinoz-m&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/spin-mor">"<span style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</span>Benedict de Spinoza: Moral Philosophy<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=%22Benedict+de+Spinoza%3A+Moral+Philosophy%22&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fspin-mor&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/spin-pol">"<span style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</span>Benedict de Spinoza: Political Philosophy<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=%22Benedict+de+Spinoza%3A+Political+Philosophy%22&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fspin-pol&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
<ul>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/">Spinoza</a>" by Steven Nadler.</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/">Spinoza's Psychological Theory</a>" by Michael LeBuffe.</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-physics/">Spinoza's Physical Theory</a>" by Richard Manning.</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-political/">Spinoza's Political Philosophy</a>" by Justin Steinberg.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Dutton, Blake. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu//s/spinoza.htm">"Benedict De Spinoza"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza&amp;rft.atitle=Benedict+De+Spinoza&amp;rft.aufirst=Blake&amp;rft.aulast=Dutton&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2F%2Fs%2Fspinoza.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archivesdephilo.com/bull.php">Bulletin Spinoza</a> of the journal Archives de philosophie</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nigelwarburton.typepad.com/philosophy_bites/2007/12/susan-james-on.html">Susan James on Spinoza on the Passions</a>, <i>Philosophy Bites</i> podcast</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdsweb.tripod.com/">Spinoza and Spinozism</a> - BDSweb</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Spinoza-the-Moral-Heretic.php">Spinoza, the Moral Heretic</a> by Matthew J. Kisner</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20070207080902/http://www.euronet.nl:80/~advaya/randomnotes.htm">Immortality in Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20070503.shtml">BBC Radio 4</a> <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)" class="mw-redirect" title="In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)">In Our Time</a> programme on Spinoza</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radioopensource.org/spinoza-mind-of-the-modern">Spinoza: Mind of the Modern</a> - audio from Radio Opensource</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infography.com/content/230787841244.html">Infography about Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=31022656">Spinoza's grave in The Hague</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/famous/spinoza/index.en.html">The Escamoth stating Spinoza's excommunication</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/liste_texte.php?groupe=Spinoza">Gilles Deleuze's lectures about Spinoza (1978-1981)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13964-spinoza-baruch-benedict-de-spinoza">Spinoza in the Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minerva-podcast.com/post/83014456193/spinoza">Audio interview with Steven Nadler on Spinoza</a> - Minerva podcast</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2014/01/17/baruch-spinoza-philosophy-and-tolerance/">Video lecture on Baruch Spinoza</a> by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Abramson" title="Henry Abramson">Dr. Henry Abramson</a></li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Works</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?dscnt=1&amp;docId=oxfaleph012466133&amp;vid=OXVU1&amp;fromLogin=true"><i>Spinoza Opera</i></a> Carl Gebhardt's 1925 four volume edition of Spinoza's Works.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Spinoza,+Benedictus+de">Works by Benedictus de Spinoza</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Spinoza%2C%20Baruch%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Baruch%20Spinoza%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Spinoza%2C%20Baruch%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Baruch%20Spinoza%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Spinoza%2C%20B%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Baruch%20Spinoza%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Spinoza%2C%20Baruch%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Baruch%20Spinoza%22%29%20OR%20%28%221632-1677%22%20AND%20Spinoza%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Baruch Spinoza</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librivox.org/author/1355">Works by Baruch Spinoza</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" width="15" height="15" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC27375057&amp;id=cQUZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1&amp;lpg=PA1&amp;dq=leibniz&amp;as_brr=1#PPP10,M1">Refutation of Spinoza by Leibniz</a> In full at Google Books</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/">More easily readable versions of the Correspondence, Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Order and Treatise on Theology and Politics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethicadb.org/index.php?lg=en&amp;lanid=3">EthicaDB</a> Hypertextual and multilingual publication of Ethics</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&amp;author=Spinoza&amp;text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise">A Theologico-Political Treatise</a> - English Translation</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/phi/spinoza/treat/tpt00.htm">A Theologico-Political Treatise</a> - English Translation (at sacred-texts.com)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skepticfiles.org/atheist/spinozad.htm">A letter from Spinoza to Albert Burgh</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~Harsch/Chronologia/Lspost17/Spinoza/spi_eth0.html">Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata et in quinque partes distincta, in quibus agetur</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quodlibet.it/schedap.php?id=1790"><i>Opera posthuma</i></a> - Amsterdam 1677. Complete photographic reproduction, ed. by F. Mignini (Quodlibet publishing house website)</li>
</ul>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Links to related articles</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;font-size:114%;">
<div style="padding:0px;">
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Baruch_Spinoza" title="Template:Baruch Spinoza"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Baruch_Spinoza" title="Template talk:Baruch Spinoza"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><strong class="selflink">Baruch Spinoza</strong></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Works</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_de_Intellectus_Emendatione" title="Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione">Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione</a></i> (1662)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Principia_philosophiae_cartesianae" title="Principia philosophiae cartesianae">Principia philosophiae cartesianae</a></i> (1663)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a></i> (1670)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus">Tractatus Politicus</a></i> (1675–1676)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i> (1677)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Baruch_Spinoza" title="Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(philosophy)" title="Affect (philosophy)">Affect</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Commons page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Baruch Spinoza"><b>Commons</b></a></li>
<li><img alt="Wikiquote page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" title="Wikiquote page" width="13" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /> <a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Baruch Spinoza"><b>Wikiquote</b></a></li>
<li><img alt="Wikisource page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" title="Wikisource page" width="15" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> <a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Author:Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Author:Baruch Spinoza"><b>Wikisource texts</b></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Age_of_Enlightenment&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%">The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Topics</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_in_the_Age_of_the_Enlightenment" title="Atheism in the Age of the Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free markets</a></li>
<li><span lang="he-Latn" xml:lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></span></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Thinkers</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">France</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Étienne Bonnot de Condillac</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Claude Adrien Helvétius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Germany</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neophytos_Doukas" title="Neophytos Doukas">Neophytos Doukas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Theoklitos Farmakidis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Rigas Feraios</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Theophilos Kairis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Adamantios Korais</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Ireland</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Italy</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Filangieri" title="Gaetano Filangieri">Gaetano Filangieri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Antonio Genovesi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Pietro Verri</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Czacki" title="Tadeusz Czacki">Tadeusz Czacki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Stanisław Konarski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Jędrzej Śniadecki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Stanisław Staszic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Józef Wybicki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Stanis%C5%82aw_Za%C5%82uski" title="Andrzej Stanisław Załuski">Andrzej Stanisław Załuski</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Andrzej_Za%C5%82uski" title="Józef Andrzej Załuski">Józef Andrzej Załuski</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Portugal</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">United Kingdom<br />
(<a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a>)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Adam Ferguson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Metaphysics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Metaphysicians</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Baruch Spinoza</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics" title="Category:Metaphysics">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Metaphysics" title="Portal:Metaphysics">Portal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_mind&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain" title="Alexander Bain">Bain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Chandra_Bhattacharya" title="Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya">Bhattacharya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Block</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Broad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Burge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">Chalmers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Churchland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">McDowell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Minsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Spinoza</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Turing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_Parallelism" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychophysical Parallelism">Parallelism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">identity theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Representational_theory_of_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Representational theory of mind">Representational</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept_and_object" title="Concept and object">Concept and object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ingenuity" title="Ingenuity">Ingenuity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">Intuition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_process" title="Mental process">Mental process</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_property" title="Mental property">Mental property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_mind_articles" title="Index of philosophy of mind articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mind_and_brain" title="Portal:Mind and brain">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_religion&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Religious belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit" title="Spirit">Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Conceptions of God</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian view of God">Aristotelian view</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maltheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltheism">Maltheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Being" title="Supreme Being">Supreme Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="God in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kal%C4%81m_cosmological_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Kal?m cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_Universe" title="Fine-tuned Universe">Fine-tuning of the Universe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_Wager" title="Pascal's Wager">Pascal's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_a_proper_basis" title="Argument from a proper basis">Proper basis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 Gambit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agnostic_existentialism" title="Agnostic existentialism">Agnostic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language-game_(philosophy)" title="Language-game (philosophy)">Language-game</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />
of religion</a></div>
<br />
(by date active)</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Ancient<br />
and<br />
Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Enlightenment</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Baruch Spinoza</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />
1850</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />
1900</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W. K. Clifford</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />
postwar</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />
1990<br />
2010</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions" title="History of religions">History of religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_science_of_religion" title="Political science of religion">Political science of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><b><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></b></li>
<li><b><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Ethics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Ethics of care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering or Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">full index...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Philosophers</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Baruch Spinoza</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">William Frankena</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">more...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ethics" title="Portal:Ethics">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/22149024">WorldCat Identities</a></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Virtual_International_Authority_File" title="Virtual International Authority File">VIAF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/22149024">22149024</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79018753">n79018753</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Name_Identifier" title="International Standard Name Identifier">ISNI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isni.org/isni/0000000122773344">0000 0001 2277 3344</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/118616242">118616242</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/LIBRIS" title="LIBRIS">SELIBR</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//libris.kb.se/auth/93498">93498</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_universitaire_de_documentation" title="Système universitaire de documentation">SUDOC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idref.fr/085696625">085696625</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11925350v">cb11925350v</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11925350v">(data)</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biografisch_Portaal" title="Biografisch Portaal">BPN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/54355304">54355304</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/BIBSYS" class="mw-redirect" title="BIBSYS">BIBSYS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ask.bibsys.no/ask/action/result?cmd=&amp;kilde=biblio&amp;cql=bs.autid+%3D+90061235&amp;feltselect=bs.autid">90061235</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Union_List_of_Artist_Names" title="Union List of Artist Names">ULAN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&amp;role=&amp;nation=&amp;subjectid=500341371">500341371</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/MusicBrainz" title="MusicBrainz">MusicBrainz</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//musicbrainz.org/artist/d5587441-9bdd-410b-a8f8-2fa320b5fdae">d5587441-9bdd-410b-a8f8-2fa320b5fdae</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia" title="National Library of Australia">NLA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35517098">35517098</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00457332">00457332</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="National Library of the Czech Republic">NKC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=jn19981002153&amp;CON_LNG=ENG">jn19981002153</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Centrale_per_il_Catalogo_Unico" title="Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico">ICCU</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opac.sbn.it/opacsbn/opac/iccu/scheda_authority.jsp?bid=IT\ICCU\CFIV\036328">IT\ICCU\CFIV\036328</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&amp;authority_id=XX892756">XX892756</a></span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>


<!-- 
NewPP limit report
Parsed by mw1163
Cached time: 20160709023944
Cache expiry: 86400
Dynamic content: true
CPU time usage: 1.351 seconds
Real time usage: 1.633 seconds
Preprocessor visited node count: 7834/1000000
Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000
Post?expand include size: 375050/2097152 bytes
Template argument size: 100639/2097152 bytes
Highest expansion depth: 19/40
Expensive parser function count: 8/500
Lua time usage: 0.481/10.000 seconds
Lua memory usage: 7.48 MB/50 MB
Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1-->

<!-- 
Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)
100.00% 1234.475      1 - -total
 20.93%  258.397      1 - Template:Reflist
 14.83%  183.052      1 - Template:Infobox_philosopher
 14.48%  178.731      1 - Template:Infobox_person
 12.98%  160.262      1 - Template:Navboxes
 12.79%  157.868      2 - Template:Infobox
  7.97%   98.341     10 - Template:Navbox
  6.99%   86.324     16 - Template:Cite_news
  6.89%   85.017      9 - Template:Cite_book
  6.81%   84.064     17 - Template:Category_handler
-->

<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3408-0!*!0!!en!4!* and timestamp 20160709023942 and revision id 728993191
 -->
<noscript><img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" /></noscript></div>					<div class="printfooter">
						Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;oldid=728993191">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;oldid=728993191</a>"					</div>
				<div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Baruch_Spinoza" title="Category:Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1632_births" title="Category:1632 births">1632 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1677_deaths" title="Category:1677 deaths">1677 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_Dutch_philosophers" title="Category:17th-century Dutch philosophers">17th-century Dutch philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_Latin-language_writers" title="Category:17th-century Latin-language writers">17th-century Latin-language writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_theologians" title="Category:17th-century theologians">17th-century theologians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_Sephardi_Jews" title="Category:17th-century Sephardi Jews">17th-century Sephardi Jews</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_Judaism" title="Category:Critics of Judaism">Critics of Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Determinists" title="Category:Determinists">Determinists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_Jews" title="Category:Dutch Jews">Dutch Jews</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_people_of_Portuguese-Jewish_descent" title="Category:Dutch people of Portuguese-Jewish descent">Dutch people of Portuguese-Jewish descent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_Modern_philosophers" title="Category:Early Modern philosophers">Early Modern philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Enlightenment_philosophers" title="Category:Enlightenment philosophers">Enlightenment philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heresy" title="Category:Heresy">Heresy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_biblical_scholars" title="Category:Jewish biblical scholars">Jewish biblical scholars</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_philosophers" title="Category:Jewish philosophers">Jewish philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_skeptics" title="Category:Jewish skeptics">Jewish skeptics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_translators_of_the_Bible" title="Category:Jewish translators of the Bible">Jewish translators of the Bible</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ontologists" title="Category:Ontologists">Ontologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pantheists" title="Category:Pantheists">Pantheists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_excommunicated_by_synagogues" title="Category:People excommunicated by synagogues">People excommunicated by synagogues</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rationalists" title="Category:Rationalists">Rationalists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Writers_from_Amsterdam" title="Category:Writers from Amsterdam">Writers from Amsterdam</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_citations_with_accessdate_and_no_URL" title="Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL">Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2012" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2012">Use dmy dates from October 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Hebrew-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Hebrew-language text">Articles containing Hebrew-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Portuguese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Portuguese-language text">Articles containing Portuguese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2014" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:AC_with_16_elements" title="Category:AC with 16 elements">AC with 16 elements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_VIAF_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers">Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_LCCN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_ISNI_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers">Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_GND_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers">Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_SELIBR_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers">Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_BNF_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers">Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_BPN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with BPN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with BPN identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_BIBSYS_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers">Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_ULAN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_MusicBrainz_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers">Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NLA_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers">Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_SBN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers</a></li></ul></div></div>				<div class="visualClear"></div>
							</div>
		</div>
		<div id="mw-navigation">
			<h2>Navigation menu</h2>

			<div id="mw-head">
									<div id="p-personal" role="navigation" class="" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label">
						<h3 id="p-personal-label">Personal tools</h3>
						<ul>
							<li id="pt-anonuserpage">Not logged in</li><li id="pt-anontalk"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li><li id="pt-anoncontribs"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Baruch+Spinoza" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory">Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Baruch+Spinoza" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o">Log in</a></li>						</ul>
					</div>
									<div id="left-navigation">
										<div id="p-namespaces" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-namespaces-label">
						<h3 id="p-namespaces-label">Namespaces</h3>
						<ul>
															<li  id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza"  title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></span></li>
															<li  id="ca-talk"><span><a href="/wiki/Talk:Baruch_Spinoza"  title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t" rel="discussion">Talk</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-variants" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-variants-label">
												<h3 id="p-variants-label">
							<span>Variants</span><a href="#"></a>
						</h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
									</div>
				<div id="right-navigation">
										<div id="p-views" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-views-label">
						<h3 id="p-views-label">Views</h3>
						<ul>
															<li id="ca-view" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" >Read</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-edit"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=edit"  title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-history" class="collapsible"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=history"  title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-cactions" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-cactions-label">
						<h3 id="p-cactions-label"><span>More</span><a href="#"></a></h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
										<div id="p-search" role="search">
						<h3>
							<label for="searchInput">Search</label>
						</h3>

						<form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform">
							<div id="simpleSearch">
							<input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"/><input type="hidden" value="Special:Search" name="title"/><input type="submit" name="fulltext" value="Search" title="Search Wikipedia for this text" id="mw-searchButton" class="searchButton mw-fallbackSearchButton"/><input type="submit" name="go" value="Go" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists" id="searchButton" class="searchButton"/>							</div>
						</form>
					</div>
									</div>
			</div>
			<div id="mw-panel">
				<div id="p-logo" role="banner"><a class="mw-wiki-logo" href="/wiki/Main_Page"  title="Visit the main page"></a></div>
						<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-navigation' aria-labelledby='p-navigation-label'>
			<h3 id='p-navigation-label'>Navigation</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-mainpage-description"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-featuredcontent"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Featured_content" title="Featured content – the best of Wikipedia">Featured content</a></li><li id="n-currentevents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Find background information on current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Load a random article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-sitesupport"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en" title="Support us">Donate to Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-shoplink"><a href="//shop.wikimedia.org" title="Visit the Wikipedia store">Wikipedia store</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-interaction' aria-labelledby='p-interaction-label'>
			<h3 id='p-interaction-label'>Interaction</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-help"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Find out about Wikipedia">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-portal"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="About the project, what you can do, where to find things">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes in the wiki [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-contactpage"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-tb' aria-labelledby='p-tb-label'>
			<h3 id='p-tb-label'>Tools</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Baruch_Spinoza" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;oldid=728993191" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-wikibase"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35802" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li><li id="t-cite"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;id=728993191" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-coll-print_export' aria-labelledby='p-coll-print_export-label'>
			<h3 id='p-coll-print_export-label'>Print/export</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=book_creator&amp;referer=Baruch+Spinoza">Create a book</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rdf2latex"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=render_article&amp;arttitle=Baruch+Spinoza&amp;returnto=Baruch+Spinoza&amp;oldid=728993191&amp;writer=rdf2latex">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-wikibase-otherprojects' aria-labelledby='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>
			<h3 id='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>In other projects</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Baruch_Spinoza" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Benedictus_de_Spinoza" hreflang="en">Wikisource</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-lang' aria-labelledby='p-lang-label'>
			<h3 id='p-lang-label'>Languages</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%88%A9%E1%8A%AD_%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%92%E1%8A%96%E1%8B%9B" title="ባሩክ ስ?ኖዛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ سبينوزا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedikt_Spinoza" title="Benedikt Spinoza – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%96_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE" title="বার?খ স?পিনোজা – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедыкт Спіноза – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Б?н?дыкт Сьпіноза – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Барух Спиноза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%87_%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%B1" title="Μπα?ο?χ Σπινόζα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baru%C4%A5_Spinozo" title="Baruĥ Spinozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="//ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ اسپینوزا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="//fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%A4%BC%ED%9D%90_%EC%8A%A4%ED%94%BC%EB%85%B8%EC%9E%90" title="바뤼?? 스피노? – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%BF_%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%A1" title="Բենեդիկտ ?պինոզա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE" title="बारूथ स?पिनोज़ा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictus_de_Spinoza" title="Benedictus de Spinoza – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%96%D7%94" title="ברוך שפינוזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%90" title="ბ?რუხ სპინ?ზ? – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Спиноза, Бенедикт – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a href="//lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lrc"><a href="//lrc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A6%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ ئسپینوزا – Northern Luri" lang="lrc" hreflang="lrc">لۊری شومالی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictus_de_Spinoza" title="Benedictus de Spinoza – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedikts_Spinoza" title="Benedikts Spinoza – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_de_Spinoza" title="Benedict de Spinoza – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinoza" title="Spinoza – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Барух Спиноза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8" title="ബറൂക?ക? സ?പിനോസ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf"><a href="//xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%90" title="ბ?რუხ სპინ?ზ? – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf">მ?რგ?ლური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="اسبينوزا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn"><a href="//mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ اسپینوزا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn">ماز?رونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%95%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%87%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%98%E1%80%AE" title="ဆပင်နိုဇာ ဘီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%95%E3%83%BB%E3%83%87%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%94%E3%83%8E%E3%82%B6" title="?ールーフ・デ・スピノザ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸਪੀਨੋਜ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="سپینوزا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Espinoza" title="Baruch Espinoza – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Спиноза, Бенедикт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><a href="//stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruk_Spinoza" title="Baruk Spinoza – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%86%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ سپینۆزا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Барух Спиноза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="//kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84_%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2" title="บารุค สปิโนซา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спіноза – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="سپینوزا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="//wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%AD%AF%E8%B5%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E8%8E%8E" title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">?语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%96%D7%90" title="ברוך שפינ?ז? – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="//yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E6%B2%99" title="?賓諾沙 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%AD%AF%E8%B5%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E8%8E%8E" title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
				<div class='after-portlet after-portlet-lang'><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35802#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div>			</div>
		</div>
				</div>
		</div>
		<div id="footer" role="contentinfo">
							<ul id="footer-info">
											<li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 9 July 2016, at 02:39.</li>
											<li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" style="display:none;"></a>;
additional terms may apply.  By using this site, you agree to the <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="//www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li>
									</ul>
							<ul id="footer-places">
											<li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="wmf:Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" title="Wikipedia:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute">Developers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&amp;mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li>
									</ul>
										<ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint">
											<li id="footer-copyrightico">
							<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="/static/images/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="/static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation"/></a>						</li>
											<li id="footer-poweredbyico">
							<a href="//www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31"/></a>						</li>
									</ul>
						<div style="clear:both"></div>
		</div>
		<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.state({"ext.globalCssJs.site":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready"});mw.loader.load(["ext.cite.a11y","mediawiki.toc","mediawiki.action.view.postEdit","site","mediawiki.user","mediawiki.hidpi","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.searchSuggest","ext.eventLogging.subscriber","ext.gadget.teahouse","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.DRN-wizard","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.featured-articles-links","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","schema.UniversalLanguageSelector","ext.uls.eventlogger","ext.uls.interlanguage"]);});</script><script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":107,"wgHostname":"mw1177"});});</script>
	</body>
</html>
