
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" dir="ltr" class="client-nojs">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8"/>
<title>Aristotle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</title>
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Aristotle rootpage-Aristotle skin-vector action-view">
		<div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div>
		<div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main">
			<a id="top"></a>

							<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
						<div class="mw-indicators">
<div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/30px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/40px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></div>
</div>
			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Aristotle</h1>
									<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
									<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
								<div id="contentSub"></div>
												<div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump">
					Jump to:					<a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, 					<a href="#p-search">search</a>
				</div>
				<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div role="note" class="hatnote">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Aristotle_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aristotle (disambiguation)">Aristotle (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<table class="infobox biography vcard" style="width:22em">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold"><span class="fn">Aristotle</span></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/220px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" width="220" height="294" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/330px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/440px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a>
<div>Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze<br />
bust of Aristotle by <a href="/wiki/Lysippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysippus">Lysippus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circa" title="Circa">c.</a>&#160;330&#160;BC.<br />
The <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a> <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(clothing)" title="Mantle (clothing)">mantle</a> is modern.</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Born</th>
<td>384 BC <a href="/wiki/Stagira_(ancient_city)" title="Stagira (ancient city)">Stagira</a>,<br />
Chalcidice (<a href="/wiki/Chalkidiki" title="Chalkidiki">Chalkidiki</a>),<br />
Northern <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Died</th>
<td><span class="nowrap">322 BC (aged 62)<br />
<a href="/wiki/Euboea" title="Euboea">Euboea</a>, Greece</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Nationality</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Era</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Region</th>
<td class="category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th>
<td class="category">
<div class="plainlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Main interests</div>
</th>
<td>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li>Ethics</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Music</li>
<li>Poetry</li>
<li>Theatre</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Politics</li>
<li>Government</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<th scope="row">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Notable ideas</div>
</th>
<td>
<div class="plainlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">Golden mean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">Theory of the soul</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influences</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="note">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">Influenced</div>
<ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;">
<li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Virtually all subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a> and pre-<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> science; also much <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a> (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_influenced_by_Aristotle" title="List of writers influenced by Aristotle">List of writers influenced by Aristotle</a>)</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding:0 0 1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" class="image" title="Copy of a lost bronze bust of Aristotle made by Lysippos (4th century BCE)"><img alt="Copy of a lost bronze bust of Aristotle made by Lysippos (4th century BCE)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/200px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" width="200" height="267" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/300px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/400px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">Overview</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Term logic</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_theology" title="Aristotelian theology">Theology</a>&#160;(<a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">unmoved mover</a>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">Ideas and interests</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a>&#160;(<a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos_(philosophy)" title="Telos (philosophy)">Telos</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li>
<li><br />
<i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" title="Arete (moral virtue)">Arete</a></i></li>
<li><br />
<a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Philosophy of nature</a>&#160;(<a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">sublunary sphere</a>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals" title="Aristotle's theory of universals">Universals</a>&#160;(<a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">substantial form</a>)</li>
</ul>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance</a>&#160;(<i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">Accident</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Sensus communis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum" title="Corpus Aristotelicum">Corpus Aristotelicum</a></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;font-style:italic;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Influences</li>
<li>Followers</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">Related topics</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Aristotle" title="Commentaries on Aristotle">Commentaries on Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conimbricenses" title="Conimbricenses">Conimbricenses</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudo-Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_views_on_women" title="Aristotle's views on women">Views on women</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border:none;"><span class="metadata"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" width="10" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Aristotelianism&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Aristotle</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/ short 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɪ/ short 'i' in 'bid'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˌ/ secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɒ/ short 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/əl/ 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀ?ιστοτέλης</span> <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Greek" title="Help:IPA for Greek">[aristotélɛ?s]</a></span>, <i>Aristotélēs</i>; 384–322&#160;BC)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and scientist born in the city of <a href="/wiki/Stagira_(ancient_city)" title="Stagira (ancient city)">Stagira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalkidiki" title="Chalkidiki">Chalkidice</a>, on the northern periphery of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>. His father, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(father_of_Aristotle)" title="Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>, died when Aristotle was a child, whereafter <a href="/wiki/Proxenus_of_Atarneus" title="Proxenus of Atarneus">Proxenus of Atarneus</a> became his guardian.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> At eighteen, he joined <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Plato's Academy</a> in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (<a href="/wiki/Circa" title="Circa">c.</a>&#160;347&#160;BC). His writings cover many subjects –&#160;including <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, ethics, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">poetry</a>, theater, music, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, politics and government&#160;– and constitute the first comprehensive system of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of <a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip of Macedon">Philip of Macedon</a>, tutored <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> starting from 343&#160;BC.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy1972-4">[4]</a></sup></p>
<p>Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(Classical)" title="Lyceum (Classical)">Lyceum</a> which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>. Aristotle's views on <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> represent the groundwork underlying many of his works.</p>
<p>Aristotle's views on <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">physical science</a> profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended into the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and were not replaced systematically until <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a> and theories such as <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>.</p>
<p>In metaphysics, <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> profoundly influenced <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and continues to influence <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as "The First Teacher" (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl" xml:lang="ar"><span style="font-size: 120%;">المعلم الأول</span></span>‎‎).</p>
<p>His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues –&#160;<a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> described his literary style as "a river of gold"<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>&#160;– it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes19959_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes19959-7">[7]</a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Life"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Life</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Thought"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Thought</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Logic"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Logic</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Analytics_and_the_Organon"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Analytics and the <i>Organon</i></span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Aristotle.27s_epistemology"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aristotle's epistemology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Geology"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Geology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Physics"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Physics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Five_elements"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Five elements</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Motion"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Motion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Causality.2C_the_four_causes"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Causality, the four causes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Optics"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Optics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Chance_and_spontaneity"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Chance and spontaneity</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Metaphysics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Substance.2C_potentiality_and_actuality"><span class="tocnumber">2.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Substance, potentiality and actuality</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Universals_and_particulars"><span class="tocnumber">2.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Universals and particulars</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Biology_and_medicine"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Biology and medicine</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Empirical_research_program"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Empirical research program</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Classification_of_living_things"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Classification of living things</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Successor:_Theophrastus"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Successor: Theophrastus</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Influence_on_Hellenistic_medicine"><span class="tocnumber">2.6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on Hellenistic medicine</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Psychology"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Psychology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Memory"><span class="tocnumber">2.7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Memory</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-24"><a href="#Recollection"><span class="tocnumber">2.7.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Recollection</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Dreams"><span class="tocnumber">2.7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Dreams</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-26"><a href="#Sleep"><span class="tocnumber">2.7.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sleep</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-27"><a href="#Theory_of_dreams"><span class="tocnumber">2.7.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Theory of dreams</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Practical_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Practical philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2.8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Politics"><span class="tocnumber">2.8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Politics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Rhetoric_and_poetics"><span class="tocnumber">2.8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rhetoric and poetics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Views_on_women"><span class="tocnumber">2.9</span> <span class="toctext">Views on women</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Loss_and_preservation_of_his_works"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Loss and preservation of his works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Legacy"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Legacy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Later_Greek_philosophers"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Later Greek philosophers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Influence_on_Byzantine_scholars"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on Byzantine scholars</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Influence_on_Islamic_theologians"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on Islamic theologians</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Influence_on_Western_Christian_theologians"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Influence on Western Christian theologians</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Post-Enlightenment_thinkers"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Post-Enlightenment thinkers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#List_of_works"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">List of works</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Eponyms"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Eponyms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Notes_and_references"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes and references</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Life">Life</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_School_of_Aristotle_(The_Lyceum)_(7263536048).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg/220px-The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg/330px-The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg/440px-The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4229" data-file-height="3174" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_School_of_Aristotle_(The_Lyceum)_(7263536048).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
School of Aristotle in <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia, Greece</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose",<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> was born in 384&#160;BC in <a href="/wiki/Stagira_(ancient_city)" title="Stagira (ancient city)">Stagira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a>, about 55&#160;km (34 miles) east of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> His father <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(father_of_Aristotle)" title="Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a> was the personal physician to <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">King Amyntas of</a> <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>. Although there is little information on Aristotle's childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></p>
<p>At about the age of eighteen, Aristotle moved to <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> to continue his education at <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Plato's Academy</a>. He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47&#160;BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew <a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a>, although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato died.<sup id="cite_ref-Lord_Intro_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord_Intro-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg/250px-Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg" width="250" height="322" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg/375px-Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg/500px-Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2604" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
"Aristotle" by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a> (1791–1882)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aristotle then accompanied <a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a> to the court of his friend <a href="/wiki/Hermias_of_Atarneus" title="Hermias of Atarneus">Hermias of Atarneus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. There, he traveled with <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> to the island of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>, where together they researched the <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> and zoology of the island. Aristotle married <a href="/wiki/Pythias" title="Pythias">Pythias</a>, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> to become the tutor to his son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a> in 343&#160;BC.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy1972-4">[4]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Green_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Green-12">[12]</a></sup> Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> was unabashedly <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocentricism">ethnocentric</a>. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Green_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Green-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>By 335&#160;BC, Artistotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(Classical)" title="Lyceum (Classical)">Lyceum</a>. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with <a href="/wiki/Herpyllis" title="Herpyllis">Herpyllis</a> of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(son_of_Aristotle)" title="Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a>, he also had an <a href="/wiki/Eromenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Eromenos">eromenos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaephatus" title="Palaephatus">Palaephatus of Abydus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
<p>This period in Athens, between 335 and 323&#160;BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy1972-4">[4]</a></sup> He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in <a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">treatise</a> form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Anima" class="mw-redirect" title="De Anima">De Anima</a></i> (<i>On the Soul</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i>.</p>
<p>Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a>, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge.</p>
<p>Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p>Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322&#160;BC, Demophilus and <a href="/wiki/Eurymedon_the_Hierophant" title="Eurymedon the Hierophant">Eurymedon the Hierophant</a> reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in <a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a>, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>&#160;– a reference to Athens's prior <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates" title="Trial of Socrates">trial and execution of Socrates</a>. He died in Euboea of <a href="/wiki/Natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural causes">natural causes</a> later that same year, having named his student <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> as his chief <a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a> and leaving a <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">will</a> in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p>
<p>Charles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is located on the sacred way between Chalcis and Eretria and to have contained two styluses, a pen, a signet-ring and some terra-cottas as well as what is supposed to be the earthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skull fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<p>In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Thought">Thought</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Logic">Logic</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg/170px-Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg" width="170" height="236" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg/255px-Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg/340px-Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1372" data-file-height="1904" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a></i> as a scholar of the 15th century AD.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Term logic</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">For more details on this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Non-Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Aristotelian logic">Non-Aristotelian logic</a>.</div>
<p>With the <i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></i>, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> stated in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of <a href="/wiki/Deductive_inference" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive inference">deductive inference</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h4>
<p>Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> However, Plato reports that <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> was devised before him, by <a href="/wiki/Prodicus_of_Ceos" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodicus of Ceos">Prodicus of Ceos</a>, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from <a href="/wiki/Dialectics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectics">dialectics</a>; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like <i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a></i> in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive system">deductive system</a>, he could never actually construct one, thus he relied instead on his <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
<p>Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a>, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">conclusion</a> would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i>, where he introduced his division method.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytics_and_the_Organon">Analytics and the <i>Organon</i></span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></div>
<p>What we today call <i>Aristotelian logic</i>, Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean <i>dialectics</i>. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century CE:</p>
<ol>
<li><i>Categories</i></li>
<li><i>On Interpretation</i></li>
<li><i>Prior Analytics</i></li>
<li><i>Posterior Analytics</i></li>
<li><i>Topics</i></li>
<li><i>On Sophistical Refutations</i></li>
</ol>
<p>The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the <i>Categories,</i> the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in <i>On Interpretation</i>, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the <i>Analytics</i>) and dialectics (in the <i>Topics</i> and <i>Sophistical Refutations</i>). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory <i>stricto sensu</i>: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the <i>Organon</i>, namely the fourth book of <i>Metaphysics.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aristotle.27s_epistemology">Aristotle's epistemology</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/220px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" width="220" height="288" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/330px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/440px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, a fresco by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in <a href="/wiki/The_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="The Forms">The Forms</a>, while holding a copy of <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the <a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">universal</a>. Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, however, finds the universal in <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">particular</a> things, which he calls the essence of things, while in Plato's ontology, the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototype</a> or <a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exemplar" class="extiw" title="wikt:exemplar">exemplar</a>. For Aristotle, therefore, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" title="Theory of Forms">Forms</a> (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see <i><a href="/wiki/Aristotle#Universals_and_particulars" title="Aristotle">Universals and particulars</a></i>, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a>, while Plato's is essentially deductive from <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> principles.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup></p>
<p>In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of <i>philosophy</i> has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.</p>
<p>In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term <i>science</i> carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (<i>dianoia</i>) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (<i>Metaphysics</i> 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics.</p>
<p>If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a>; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics; (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.</p>
<p>In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform <a href="/wiki/Original_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Original research">original research</a> in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences.</p>
<p>Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers.</p>
<p>His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i> he claimed that human males have more teeth than females.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> In a similar vein, <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> On the other hand, Aristotle refuted <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>'s claim that the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then&#160;... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></p>
<p>In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws.</p>
<p>Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a <a href="/wiki/Geocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentrism">geocentric cosmology</a> that we may discern in selections of the <i>Metaphysics</i>, which was widely accepted up until the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th century, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotational <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Center_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Center of the Universe">center of the universe</a>.</p>
<p>Because he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Geology">Geology</span></h3>
<p>As quoted from <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Geology" title="Principles of Geology">Principles of Geology</a></i>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the <a href="/wiki/Palus_Maeotis" class="mw-redirect" title="Palus Maeotis">Palus Maeotis</a> within sixty years from his own time&#160;... He alludes&#160;... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten.</p>
He says [12th chapter of his <i>Meteorics</i>] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Physics">Physics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a></div>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Five_elements">Five elements</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Classical element</a></div>
<p>Aristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">Earth</a>, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">Water</a>, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">Air</a>, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a>, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> and heat.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">Aether</a>, which is the divine substance that makes up the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">heavenly spheres</a> and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).</li>
</ul>
<p>Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is "natural motion"—motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Motion">Motion</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">potentiality and actuality</a></div>
<p>Aristotle defined <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> as the actuality of a potentiality <i>as such</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because <a href="/wiki/Aristotle#Substance.2C_potentiality_and_actuality" title="Aristotle">actuality and potentiality</a> are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Causality.2C_the_four_causes">Causality, the four causes</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></div>
<p>Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Material_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Material cause">Material cause</a> describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">formal cause</a> is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Efficient_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficient cause">efficient cause</a> is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final cause</a> is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.</li>
</ul>
<p>Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, because it cannot fall of its own accord.</p>
<p>Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Optics">Optics</span></h4>
<p>Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The second oldest written evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> (after <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> c. 400 BC) can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350&#160;BC in <i>Problemata</i>. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Diaphragm_(optics)" title="Diaphragm (optics)">diaphragm</a>. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Chance_and_spontaneity">Chance and spontaneity</span></h4>
<p>According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of <a href="/wiki/Sumbebekos" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumbebekos">accidental things</a>. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place.</p>
<p>For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.</p>
<p>There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, because it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics (Aristotle)</a></div>
<p>Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">immaterial</a> being," or of "being in the highest degree of <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Substance.2C_potentiality_and_actuality">Substance, potentiality and actuality</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality_(Aristotle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)">Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)</a></div>
<p>Aristotle examines the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> (<i>ousia</i>) in his <i>Metaphysics</i> (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the <a href="/wiki/Material_substratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Material substratum">substratum</a>, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the <i>potential</i> house, while the form of the substance is the <i>actual</i> house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other <a href="/wiki/Genus-differentia_definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Genus-differentia definition">differentia</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Predicables" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicables">predicables</a>) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup></p>
<p>With regard to the change (<i><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">kinesis</a></i>) and its causes now, as he defines in his <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></i> 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:</p>
<ol>
<li>growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;</li>
<li>locomotion, which is change in space; and</li>
<li>alteration, which is change in quality.</li>
</ol>
<p>The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (<i><a href="/wiki/Dunamis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunamis">dynamis</a></i>) and actuality (<i><a href="/wiki/Entelecheia" class="mw-redirect" title="Entelecheia">entelecheia</a></i>) in association with the matter and the form.</p>
<p>Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (<i>dynamei</i>) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (<i>poiein</i>) or 'be acted upon' (<i>paschein</i>), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate&#160;– being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise&#160;– acting).</p>
<p>Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (<i>telos</i>) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final cause</a> or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality.</p>
<p>With this <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a> of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Universals_and_particulars">Universals and particulars</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals" title="Aristotle's theory of universals">Aristotle's theory of universals</a></div>
<p>Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.</p>
<p>Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> is a 20th-century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals".</p>
<p>Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist.</p>
<p>In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Biology_and_medicine">Biology and medicine</span></h3>
<p>In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Empirical_research_program">Empirical research program</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Octopus3.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Octopus3.jpg/220px-Octopus3.jpg" width="220" height="178" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Octopus3.jpg/330px-Octopus3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Octopus3.jpg/440px-Octopus3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3136" data-file-height="2538" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Octopus3.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Octopus swimming</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg/220px-Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg/330px-Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg/440px-Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<i>Torpedo fuscomaculata</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Triakis_semifasciata.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Triakis_semifasciata.jpg/220px-Triakis_semifasciata.jpg" width="220" height="87" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Triakis_semifasciata.jpg/330px-Triakis_semifasciata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Triakis_semifasciata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="139" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Triakis_semifasciata.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Leopard shark</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation of Animals</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts of Animals</a></i>, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on <a href="/wiki/Catfish" title="Catfish">catfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_ray" title="Electric ray">electric fish</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_(genus)" title="Torpedo (genus)">Torpedo</a></i>) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>, namely, <i>Octopus</i>, <i>Sepia</i> (<a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a>) and the paper nautilus (<i><a href="/wiki/Argonauta_argo" title="Argonauta argo">Argonauta argo</a></i>). His description of the <a href="/wiki/Hectocotylus" title="Hectocotylus">hectocotyl arm</a>, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (<a href="/wiki/Selachians" class="mw-redirect" title="Selachians">selachians</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Singer.2C_Charles_1931_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singer.2C_Charles_1931-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
<p>Another good example of his methods comes from the <i>Generation of Animals</i> in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated.</p>
<p>He gave accurate descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a>' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the <a href="/wiki/Ovoviviparity" title="Ovoviviparity">ovoviviparous</a> embryological development of the <a href="/wiki/Hound_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Hound shark">hound shark</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mustelus_mustelus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustelus mustelus">Mustelus mustelus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Classification_of_living_things">Classification of living things</span></h4>
<p>Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals and fishes.<sup id="cite_ref-BergstromDugatkin2012_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergstromDugatkin2012-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rhodes1974_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes1974-42">[42]</a></sup> His classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of <a href="/wiki/Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).</p>
<p>For <a href="/wiki/Charles_Singer" title="Charles Singer">Charles Singer</a>, "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a <i>scala naturae</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-Singer.2C_Charles_1931_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singer.2C_Charles_1931-39">[39]</a></sup> Aristotle's <i>History of Animals</i> classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "<a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Ladder of Life</a>" (<i>scala naturae</i> or <a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a>), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final causes</a>, guided all natural processes. Such a <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
<p>In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the <i>scala naturae</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs.</p>
<p>Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times.</p>
<p>He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Successor:_Theophrastus">Successor: Theophrastus</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)">Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg/220px-161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg" width="220" height="332" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg/330px-161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg/440px-161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="754" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The <a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">frontispiece</a> to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)">Historia Plantarum</a></i> (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 300 BC.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aristotle's successor at the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(Classical)" title="Lyceum (Classical)">Lyceum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, wrote a series of books on botany—the <i>History of Plants</i>—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as <i>carpos</i> for fruit, and <i>pericarpion</i> for seed vessel.</p>
<p>Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the <a href="/wiki/Efficient_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficient cause">efficient cause</a>. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_Hellenistic_medicine">Influence on Hellenistic medicine</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">For more details on this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in ancient Greece">Medicine in ancient Greece</a>.</div>
<p>After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> It is not until the age of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemies</a> that advances in biology can be again found.</p>
<p>The first medical teacher at Alexandria, <a href="/wiki/Herophilos" title="Herophilos">Herophilus of Chalcedon</a>, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a>, noting that the latter <a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">pulse</a> while the former do not.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> Though a few ancient <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> challenged the <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Psychology">Psychology</span></h3>
<p>Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, given in his treatise <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></i> (<i>peri psyche</i>, often known by its <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> title <i>De Anima</i>), posits three kinds of <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them.</p>
<p>For Aristotle, the soul (<i>psyche</i>) was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism#Body.E2.80.93soul_hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">form</a> of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Memory">Memory</span></h4>
<p>According to Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> is the ability to hold a perceived experience in your mind and to have the ability to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> In other words, a memory is a mental picture (<a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phantasm" class="extiw" title="wikt:phantasm">phantasm</a>) in which Aristotle defines in <i>De Anima</i>, as an appearance which is imprinted on the part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle believed an "imprint" becomes impressed on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when a <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(psychology)" title="Stimulus (psychology)">stimuli</a> is too complex that the nervous system (semi-fluid bodily organ) cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinking">thinking</a> .<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200761_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200761-56">[56]</a></sup> The mental picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the final product of the entire process of sense perception. It does not matter if the experience was seen or heard, every experience ends up as a mental image in memory <sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle uses the word "memory" for two basic abilities. First, the actual retaining of the experience in the <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> "imprint" that can develop from sensation. Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with the "imprint" due to being impressed at a particular time and processing specific contents. These abilities can be explained as memory is neither sensation nor thinking because is arises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory is of the past, <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200725_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200725-58">[58]</a></sup> prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. The retrieval of our "imprints" cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.</p>
<p>Aristotle proposed that slow-witted people have good memory because the fluids in their brain do not wash away their memory organ used to imprint experiences and so the "imprint" can easily continue. However, they cannot be too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will not receive new "imprints". He believed the young and the old do not properly develop an "imprint". Young people undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the elderly's organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new "imprints". Likewise, people who are too quick-witted are similar to the young and the image cannot be fixed because of the rapid changes of their organ. Because intellectual functions are not involved in memory, memories belong to some animals too, but only those in which have <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> of time.</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Recollection">Recollection</span></h5>
<p>Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and people perceive them as images or "imprints", people are continually weaving together new "imprints" of things they experience. In order to search for these "imprints", people search the memory itself.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Within the memory, if one <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. <a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recollection</a> occurs when one experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the other. If the chain of "images" is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulate the other memory in most instances. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they have stimulated the one that was needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren192125_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren192125-60">[60]</a></sup></p>
<p>Recollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory "imprint" after some time has passed. Retrieval of stored information is dependent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being (human or animal) and the abilities the human or animal possesses .<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarruthers200719_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarruthers200719-61">[61]</a></sup> Only humans will remember "imprints" of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time will be able to retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Recollection of an "imprint" is when the present experiences a person remembers are similar with elements corresponding in character and arrangement of past sensory experiences. When an "imprint" is recalled, it may bring forth a large group of related "imprints".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1921296_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1921296-62">[62]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain "imprints", was connected systematically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast, and contiguity. These three laws make up his <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of Association">Laws of Association</a>. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1921259_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1921259-63">[63]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Dreams">Dreams</span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Sleep">Sleep</span></h5>
<p>Before understanding Aristotle's take on dreams, first his idea of sleep must be examined. Aristotle gives an account of his explanation of sleep in <i>On Sleep and Wakefulness</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> or of digestion,<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> so it is vital to the body, including the senses, so it can be revitalized.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can also not have a desire, which is the result of a sensation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> However, the senses are able to work during sleep,<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> albeit differently than when a person is awake because during sleep a person can still have sensory experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> Also, all of the senses are not inactive during sleep, only the ones that are weary.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup></p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Theory_of_dreams">Theory of dreams</span></h5>
<p>Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus because, as discussed, the senses do not work as they normally do during sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner than when awake.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> Aristotle explains the phenomenon that occurs when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> When they look away from that stimulus, the next thing they look at appears to be moving in a wave like motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions left from previously perceived stimuli become irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_65-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-65">[65]</a></sup> However, during sleep the impressions stimuli made throughout the day become noticed because there are not new sensory experiences to distract from these impressions that were made.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams will not resemble the actual experience that occurred when awake.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup></p>
<p>During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> When a person is asleep, their senses are not acting as they do when they are awake and this results in them thinking like a person who is influenced by strong feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> Since a person sleeping is in this suggestible state, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup></p>
<p>When asleep, a person is unable to make judgments as they do when they are awake<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> Due to the senses not functioning normally during sleep, they are unable to help a person judge what is happening in their dream.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> This in turn leads the person to believe the dream is real.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> Dreams may be absurd in nature but the senses are not able to discern whether they are real or not.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64">[64]</a></sup> So, the dreamer is left to accept the dream because they lack the choice to judge it.</p>
<p>One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams introduces ideas that are contradictory to previously held beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb-67">[67]</a></sup> He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and that they are not sent by a divine being.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb-67">[67]</a></sup> Aristotle reasoned that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are happenstances not divinations.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb-67">[67]</a></sup> These ideas were contradictory to what had been believed about dreams, but at the time in which he introduced these ideas more thinkers were beginning to give naturalistic as opposed to supernatural explanations to phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb-67">[67]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle also includes in his theory of dreams what constitutes a dream and what does not. He claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup> If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup> Secondly, any sensory experience that actually occurs while a person is asleep and is perceived by the person while asleep does not qualify as part of a dream.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup> For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, Aristotle argues that this sensory experience is not part of the dream.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup> The actual sensory experience is perceived by the senses, the fact that it occurred while the person was asleep does not make it part of the dream.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup> Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of sensory experiences had when awake.<sup id="cite_ref-Modrak_66-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modrak-66">[66]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_philosophy">Practical philosophy</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethics">Ethics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Aristotelian ethics</a></div>
<p>Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>.</p>
<p>Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (<i>ergon</i>) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the <i><a href="/wiki/De_Anima" class="mw-redirect" title="De Anima">psuchē</a></i> (normally translated as <i>soul</i>) in accordance with reason (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, <i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i>, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (<i>ēthikē</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" title="Arete (moral virtue)">aretē</a></i>), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (<i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phronesis</a></i>) and their intellect (<i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i>) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theoretical</a> or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Politics">Politics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics (Aristotle)</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle-constitutions-2.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Aristotle-constitutions-2.png/240px-Aristotle-constitutions-2.png" width="240" height="403" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Aristotle-constitutions-2.png/360px-Aristotle-constitutions-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Aristotle-constitutions-2.png/480px-Aristotle-constitutions-2.png 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="1531" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle-constitutions-2.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Aristotle's classification of <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitutions</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a> is its <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup></p>
<p>The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (<i><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i>) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (<i>koin?nia</i>). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> theory, according to which individuals leave the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a> because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p>
<p>Excerpt from a speech by the character 'Aristotle' in the book <a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a> (Hutchinson and Johnson, 2015 p.&#160;22)<sup id="cite_ref-HutchinsonJohnson_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HutchinsonJohnson-74">[74]</a></sup></p>
<dl>
<dd><i>For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.</i></dd>
</dl>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Rhetoric_and_poetics">Rhetoric and poetics</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric (Aristotle)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics (Aristotle)</a></div>
<p>Aristotle considered <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>, tragedy, comedy, <a href="/wiki/Dithyramb" title="Dithyramb">dithyrambic poetry</a> and music to be <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">imitative</a>, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup></p>
<p>While it is believed that Aristotle's <i>Poetics</i> comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the <a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">catharsis</a> of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes <i>Poetics</i> with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">mimesis</a>. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup></p>
<p>Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the <a href="/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia">Delphic Oracle</a> and studied the fables of <a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Views_on_women">Views on women</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_views_on_women" title="Aristotle's views on women">Aristotle's views on women</a></div>
<p>Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">feminist metaphysics</a> have accused Aristotle of <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a><sup id="cite_ref-Freeland_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeland-81">[81]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morsink_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morsink-82">[82]</a></sup> However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his <i>Rhetoric</i> that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Loss_and_preservation_of_his_works">Loss and preservation of his works</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">See also: <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum" title="Corpus Aristotelicum">Corpus Aristotelicum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recovery_of_Aristotle" title="Recovery of Aristotle">Recovery of Aristotle</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg/220px-Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg" width="220" height="309" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg/330px-Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg/440px-Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="1025" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
First page of a 1566 edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> in Greek and Latin</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-84">[84]</a></sup> from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-84">[84]</a></sup> Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes unintended for publication.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-84">[84]</a></sup> The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-84">[84]</a></sup></p>
<p>Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Athens">Constitution of Athens</a>,</i> are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school," perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as <i><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a>,</i> may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Straton</a>. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the <i>De Plantis,</i> possibly by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus of Damascus</a>. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and <a href="/wiki/Astrological" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrological">astrological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" title="Magic (paranormal)">magical</a> texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup></p>
<p>According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "<a href="/wiki/Exoteric" title="Exoteric">exoteric</a>" and the "<a href="/wiki/Esoteric" class="mw-redirect" title="Esoteric">esoteric</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works intended for use within the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum" title="Lyceum">Lyceum</a> course / school (esoteric).<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> Modern scholars commonly assume these latter to be Aristotle's own (unpolished) lecture notes (or in some cases possible notes by his students).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512-88">[88]</a></sup> However, one classic scholar offers an alternative interpretation. The 5th century <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonist">neoplatonist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a> writes that Aristotle's writing style is deliberately <a href="/wiki/Obscurantism" title="Obscurantism">obscurantist</a> so that "good people may for that reason stretch their mind even more, whereas empty minds that are lost through carelessness will be put to flight by the obscurity when they encounter sentences like these."<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup></p>
<p>Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (<i>Fragments</i> of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECicero1874.C2.A7_119_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECicero1874.C2.A7_119-90">[90]</a></sup> it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512-88">[88]</a></sup> However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup></p>
<p>One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> in his <i>Geography</i> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to <a href="/wiki/Neleus_of_Scepsis" title="Neleus of Scepsis">Neleus of Scepsis</a>. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to <a href="/wiki/Scepsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Scepsis">Scepsis</a>, where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when <a href="/wiki/Apellicon_of_Teos" title="Apellicon of Teos">Apellicon of Teos</a> discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a> occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian <a href="/wiki/Tyrannion_of_Amisus" title="Tyrannion of Amisus">Tyrannion of Amisus</a> and then by the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup></p>
<p>Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair.</p>
<p>Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>, for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact.</p>
<p>On the one hand, the surviving texts of Aristotle do not derive from finished literary texts, but rather from working drafts used within Aristotle's school, as opposed, on the other hand, to the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum#Fragments" title="Corpus Aristotelicum">dialogues and other "exoteric" texts</a> which Aristotle published more widely during his lifetime. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy">Legacy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg/250px-Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg" width="250" height="315" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg/375px-Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg/500px-Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4821" data-file-height="6082" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_by_Jusepe_de_Ribera.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
"Aristotle" by <a href="/wiki/Jusepe_de_Ribera" title="Jusepe de Ribera">Jusepe de Ribera</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg/250px-Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg" width="250" height="263" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg/375px-Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg/500px-Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3397" data-file-height="3567" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
"Aristotle with a bust of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_aristotle.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Arabic_aristotle.jpg/250px-Arabic_aristotle.jpg" width="250" height="367" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Arabic_aristotle.jpg/375px-Arabic_aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Arabic_aristotle.jpg/500px-Arabic_aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1563" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_aristotle.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
An thirteenth-century Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right).</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg/250px-Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg" width="250" height="375" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg/375px-Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg/500px-Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1909" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Statue by Cipri Adolf Bermann (1915) at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Freiburg" title="University of Freiburg">University of Freiburg</a> <a href="/wiki/Freiburg_im_Breisgau" title="Freiburg im Breisgau">Freiburg im Breisgau</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Magee" title="Bryan Magee">Bryan Magee</a>, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> pioneered the study of <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup></p>
<p>Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philosophy1972-4">[4]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Later_Greek_philosophers">Later Greek philosophers</span></h3>
<p>The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a>. Aristotle's notable students included <a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum" title="Demetrius of Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eudemos_of_Rhodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eudemos of Rhodes">Eudemos of Rhodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpalus" title="Harpalus">Harpalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mnason_of_Phocis" title="Mnason of Phocis">Mnason of Phocis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(son_of_Aristotle)" title="Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_Byzantine_scholars">Influence on Byzantine scholars</span></h3>
<p>Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_of_Alexandria" title="Stephen of Alexandria">Stephen of Alexandria</a> in the early seventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and <a href="/wiki/Michael_of_Ephesus" title="Michael of Ephesus">Michael of Ephesus</a> reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Anna_Comnena" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Comnena">Anna Comnena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_Islamic_theologians">Influence on Islamic theologians</span></h3>
<p>Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Islamic theology</a>. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-106">[106]</a></sup> as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by <a href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> philosophers, scientists and scholars. <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpharabius" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpharabius">Alpharabius</a>, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. <a href="/wiki/Alkindus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkindus">Alkindus</a> considered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>) who were influenced by the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup></p>
<p>In accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-106">[106]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_on_Western_Christian_theologians">Influence on Western Christian theologians</span></h3>
<p>With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the <i>Organon</i> made by <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> and from the original Greek, such as those by <a href="/wiki/James_of_Venice" title="James of Venice">James of Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Moerbeke" title="William of Moerbeke">William of Moerbeke</a>.</p>
<p>After <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. See <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Chaucer</a> describes his student as being happy by having</p>
<dl>
<dd>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <i>at his beddes heed</i></dd>
<dd><i>Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,</i></dd>
<dd><i>Of aristotle and his philosophie,</i><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup></dd>
</dl>
<p>The Italian poet <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> says of Aristotle in <a href="/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Divine Comedy">the first circles of hell</a>,</p>
<dl>
<dd><i>I saw the Master there of those who know,</i></dd>
<dd><i>Amid the philosophic family,</i></dd>
<dd><i>By all admired, and by all reverenced;</i></dd>
<dd><i>There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,</i></dd>
<dd><i>Who stood beside him closer than the rest.</i><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup></dd>
</dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-Enlightenment_thinkers">Post-Enlightenment thinkers</span></h3>
<p>The German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup> However debatable this is, Aristotle rigid separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>"), and the natural superiority (virtue, <i>arete</i>) of others. It is <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="List_of_works">List of works</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum" title="Corpus Aristotelicum">Corpus Aristotelicum</a></div>
<p>The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Bekker" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanuel Bekker">Immanuel Bekker</a>'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (<i>Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica</i>, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Eponyms">Eponyms</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg/250px-Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg" width="250" height="187" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg/375px-Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg/500px-Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2899" data-file-height="2174" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
"ARISTOTLE" near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Aristotle_Mountains" title="Aristotle Mountains">Aristotle Mountains</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Oscar_II_Coast" title="Oscar II Coast">Oscar II Coast</a> of <a href="/wiki/Graham_Land" title="Graham Land">Graham Land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book <i>Meteorology</i>, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and call it "Antarctica".<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Aristoteles_(crater)" title="Aristoteles (crater)">Aristoteles (crater)</a> is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian society">Aristotelian society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_theology" title="Aristotelian theology">Aristotelian theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conimbricenses" title="Conimbricenses">Conimbricenses</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_influenced_by_Aristotle" title="List of writers influenced by Aristotle">List of writers influenced by Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otium" title="Otium">Otium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudo-Aristotle</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aristotle">"Aristotle"</a> entry in <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>, HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">That these undisputed dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by <a href="/wiki/August_Boeckh" class="mw-redirect" title="August Boeckh">August Boeckh</a> (<i>Kleine Schriften</i> VI 195); for further discussion, see <a href="/wiki/Felix_Jacoby" title="Felix Jacoby">Felix Jacoby</a> on <i><a href="/wiki/FGrHist" class="mw-redirect" title="FGrHist">FGrHist</a></i> 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, <i>Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition</i>, Göteborg, 1957, p.&#160;253.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biography.com/people/aristotle-9188415?page=1#early-life">"Biography of Aristotle"</a>. Biography.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.btitle=Biography+of+Aristotle&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biography.com%2Fpeople%2Faristotle-9188415%3Fpage%3D1%23early-life&amp;rft.pub=Biography.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-philosophy1972-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-philosophy1972_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand Russell, <i>A History of Western Philosophy</i>, Simon &amp; Schuster, 1972.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1995" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Barnes, Jonathan</a> (1995). "Life and Work". <i>The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle</i>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WBqQOqM5dfsC&amp;pg=PA16">16</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42294-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42294-9">978-0-521-42294-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Life+and+Work&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan&amp;rft.aulast=Barnes&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-42294-9&amp;rft.pages=16&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCicero1874" class="citation book">Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1874) [106–43 BC]. "Book II, chapter XXXVIII, §119". In Reid, James S. <i>The Academica of Cirero</i>. London: Macmillian and company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Book+II%2C+chapter+XXXVIII%2C+%A7119&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcus+Tullius&amp;rft.aulast=Cicero&amp;rft.btitle=The+Academica+of+Cirero&amp;rft.date=1874&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Macmillian++and+company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> "<i>veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles</i>", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence")</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes19959-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes19959_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, p.&#160;9.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Campbell, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle">"Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name "Aristotle<span style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</span>"</a>. <i>Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names</i>. www.behindthename.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Behind+the+Name%3A+Meaning%2C+Origin+and+History+of+the+Name+%22Aristotle%22&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.aulast=Campbell&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.behindthename.com%2Fname%2Faristotle&amp;rft.jtitle=Behind+the+Name%3A+The+Etymology+and+History+of+First+Names&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999). <i>Aristotle: The Great Philosophers</i>. Routledge. p.&#160;5. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92392-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92392-1">0-415-92392-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Cole&amp;rft.aulast=McLeisch&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+The+Great+Philosophers&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-92392-1&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Life" in <i>A Companion to Aristotle</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p.&#160;4.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Lord_Intro-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lord_Intro_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carnes Lord, introduction to <i>The Politics</i> by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Peter_Green-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Green_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Green_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Green, <i>Alexander of Macedon</i>, University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England) 1991, pp.&#160;58–59</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William George Smith,<i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</i>, vol.&#160;3, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2421.html">p.&#160;88</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Green, <i>Alexander of Macedon</i>, University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England), 1991, p.&#160;379 and 459.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Filonik, Jakub (2013). "Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal". <i>Dike</i> (16): 72–73. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.13130%2F1128-8221%2F4290">10.13130/1128-8221/4290</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Athenian+impiety+trials%3A+a+reappraisal&amp;rft.aufirst=Jakub&amp;rft.aulast=Filonik&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13130%2F1128-8221%2F4290&amp;rft.issue=16&amp;rft.jtitle=Dike&amp;rft.pages=72-73&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jones, W. T. (1980). <i>The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy</i>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p.&#160;216. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-538312-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-538312-4">0-15-538312-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=W.+T.&amp;rft.aulast=Jones&amp;rft.btitle=The+Classical+Mind%3A+A+History+of+Western+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-15-538312-4&amp;rft.pages=216&amp;rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Vita Marciana</i> 41, cf. <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> <i>Varia historica</i> 3.36, Ingemar Düring, <i>Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition</i>, Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&amp;pg=PA3862&amp;dq=Antipater+Aristotle+will&amp;sig=sQzQVBdRmk-spNdZnyd1MwzAPTc">Aristotle's Will</a>, <i>Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt</i> by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>The Politics of Aristotle</i> translated by Ernest Barker, Oxford: Clarendom Press, 1946, p. xxiii, note 2, who refers to <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>, vol. xii, fasc. ix, s.v. Eretria.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Shields, C., "Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writings" in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle</i> (<a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2012), pp.&#160;3–16. Düring, I., <i>Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition</i> (Göteborg, 1957) is a collection of [an overview of?] ancient biographies of Aristotle.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MICHAEL DEGNAN, 1994. Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic. <i>Philosophical Books</i> 35.2 (April 1994): 81–89.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Corcoran, John (2009). "Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic". History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bocheński, I. M. (1951). <i>Ancient Formal Logic</i>. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=I.+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Boche%C5%84ski&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Formal+Logic&amp;rft.date=1951&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Amsterdam&amp;rft.pub=North-Holland+Publishing+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boche.C5.84ski.2C_1951_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bocheński, 1951.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rose, Lynn E. (1968). <i>Aristotle's Syllogistic</i>. Springfield: Charles C Thomas Publisher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Lynn+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Rose&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Syllogistic&amp;rft.date=1968&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Springfield&amp;rft.pub=Charles+C+Thomas+Publisher&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jori, Alberto (2003). <i>Aristotele</i>. Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Alberto&amp;rft.aulast=Jori&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotele&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Milano&amp;rft.pub=Bruno+Mondadori+Editore&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>History of Animals</i>, 2.3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2">"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. Plato.stanford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fphiloponus%2F%232.2&amp;rft.pub=Plato.stanford.edu&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Meteorology</i> 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Burnet_(classicist)" title="John Burnet (classicist)">Burnet, John</a>. 1928. <i>Platonism</i>, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 61, 103–104.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Charles_Lyell" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog">Principles of Geology</a></i>, 1832, p.17</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Physics</i> 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Sachs, Joe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160411034200/http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/">"Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/">the original</a> on 11 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Aristotle%3A+Motion+and+its+Place+in+Nature&amp;rft.aufirst=Joe&amp;rft.aulast=Sachs&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Faris-mot%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Lahanas, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm">"Optics and ancient Greeks"</a>. Mlahanas.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.aulast=Lahanas&amp;rft.btitle=Optics+and+ancient+Greeks&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlahanas.de%2FGreeks%2FOptics.htm&amp;rft.pub=Mlahanas.de&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Physics</i> 2.6</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Metaphysics</i> VIII 1043a 10–30</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Metaphysics</i> IX 1050a 5–10</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Metaphysics</i> VIII 1045a–b</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Singer.2C_Charles_1931-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Singer.2C_Charles_1931_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singer.2C_Charles_1931_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Singer, Charles. <i>A short history of biology</i>. Oxford 1931.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Classical_Dictionary" title="Oxford Classical Dictionary">Oxford Classical Dictionary</a></i>, 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BergstromDugatkin2012-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BergstromDugatkin2012_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Carl T. Bergstrom; Lee Alan Dugatkin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ"><i>Evolution</i></a>. Norton. p.&#160;35. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92592-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92592-0">978-0-393-92592-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=Carl+T.+Bergstrom&amp;rft.au=Lee+Alan+Dugatkin&amp;rft.btitle=Evolution&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSeaEZwEACAAJ&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-92592-0&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft.pub=Norton&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Rhodes1974-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes1974_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rhodes, Frank Harold Trevor (1 January 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC"><i>Evolution</i></a>. Golden Press. p.&#160;7. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-64360-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-64360-5">978-0-307-64360-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Frank+Harold+Trevor&amp;rft.aulast=Rhodes&amp;rft.btitle=Evolution&amp;rft.date=1974-01-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEWGt0bff8agC&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-307-64360-5&amp;rft.pages=7&amp;rft.pub=Golden+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later use made of this idea by clerics.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason, <i>A History of the Sciences</i> pp. 43–44</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp. 201–202; see also: Lovejoy, <i>The Great Chain of Being</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>De Anima</i> II 3</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason, <i>A History of the Sciences</i> pp. 45</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guthrie, <i>A History of Greek Philosophy</i> Vol. 1 pp. 348</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp. 90–91; Mason, <i>A History of the Sciences</i>, p 46</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annas, <i>Classical Greek Philosophy</i> pp. 252</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason, <i>A History of the Sciences</i> pp. 56</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp. 90–94; quotation from p 91</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annas, <i>Classical Greek Philosophy</i>, p 252</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/">"Psychology"</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBloch2007" class="citation book">Bloch, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&amp;pg=PR9&amp;dq=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection#v=onepage&amp;q=Aristotle%20on%20Memory%20and%20Recollection&amp;f=false"><i>Aristotle on Memory and Recollection</i></a>. p.&#160;12. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-16046-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-16046-9">90-04-16046-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.aulast=Bloch&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DQwTHng_5RqAC%26pg%3DPR9%26dq%3DAristotle%2Bon%2BMemory%2Band%2BRecollection%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DAristotle%2520on%2520Memory%2520and%2520Recollection%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=90-04-16046-9&amp;rft.pages=12&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200761-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200761_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloch2007">Bloch 2007</a>, p.&#160;61.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2007" class="citation book">Carruthers, Mary (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=dntrAnqfIasC&amp;pg=PR8&amp;dq=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times#v=onepage&amp;q=The%20book%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20study%20of%20memory%20in%20medieval%20times&amp;f=false"><i>The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture</i></a>. p.&#160;16. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42973-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42973-3">978-0-521-42973-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Mary&amp;rft.aulast=Carruthers&amp;rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Memory%3A+A+Study+of+Memory+in+Medieval+Culture&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DdntrAnqfIasC%26pg%3DPR8%26dq%3DThe%2Bbook%2Bof%2Bmemory%3A%2Bthe%2Bstudy%2Bof%2Bmemory%2Bin%2Bmedieval%2Btimes%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DThe%2520book%2520of%2520memory%253A%2520the%2520study%2520of%2520memory%2520in%2520medieval%2520times%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-42973-3&amp;rft.pages=16&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200725-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200725_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloch2007">Bloch 2007</a>, p.&#160;25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1921" class="citation book">Warren, Howard (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA3&amp;dq=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology#v=onepage&amp;q=The%20history%20of%20the%20association%20of%20psychology&amp;f=false"><i>A History of the Association Psychology</i></a>. p.&#160;30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Howard&amp;rft.aulast=Warren&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Association+Psychology&amp;rft.date=1921&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DD4IXAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA3%26dq%3DThe%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bassociation%2Bof%2Bpsychology%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DThe%2520history%2520of%2520the%2520association%2520of%2520psychology%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rft.pages=30&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren192125-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren192125_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p.&#160;25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarruthers200719-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarruthers200719_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarruthers2007">Carruthers 2007</a>, p.&#160;19.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1921296-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1921296_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p.&#160;296.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1921259-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1921259_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p.&#160;259.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_on_Dreaming:_What_Goes_on_in_Sleep_when_the_.27Big_Fire.27_goes_out_64-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Holowchak, Mark (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdcnet.org/ancientphil/Ancient-Philosophy">"Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out"</a>. <i>Ancient Philosophy</i> <b>16</b> (2): 405–423<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Aristotle+on+Dreaming%3A+What+Goes+on+in+Sleep+when+the+%27Big+Fire%27+goes+out&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft.aulast=Holowchak&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdcnet.org%2Fancientphil%2FAncient-Philosophy&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Ancient+Philosophy&amp;rft.pages=405-423&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=16" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Ref_2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref_2_65-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Shute, Clarence (1941). <i>The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being</i>. Morningsdie Heights: New York: Columbia University Press. pp.&#160;115–118.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Clarence&amp;rft.aulast=Shute&amp;rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Aristotle%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Living+Being&amp;rft.date=1941&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=115-118&amp;rft.place=Morningsdie+Heights%3A+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|access-date=</code> requires <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Modrak-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modrak_66-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Modrak, Deborah (2009). "Dreams and Method in Aristotle". <i>Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research</i> <b>20</b>: 169–181.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Dreams+and+Method+in+Aristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Deborah&amp;rft.aulast=Modrak&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Skepsis%3A+A+Journal+for+Philosophy+and+Interdisciplinary+Research&amp;rft.pages=169-181&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=20" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|access-date=</code> requires <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Webb-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Webb_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Webb_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Webb_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Webb_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Webb, Wilse (1990). <i>Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night. New consciousness reader series</i>. Los Angeles, CA, England: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. pp.&#160;174–184. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87477-594-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87477-594-9">0-87477-594-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Wilse&amp;rft.aulast=Webb&amp;rft.btitle=Dreamtime+and+dreamwork%3A+Decoding+the+language+of+the+night.+New+consciousness+reader+series&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-87477-594-9&amp;rft.pages=174-184&amp;rft.place=Los+Angeles%2C+CA%2C+England&amp;rft.pub=Jeremy+P.+Tarcher%2C+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> Book I. See for example chapter 7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1098a">1098a</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> Book VI.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Politics 1253a19–24</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Aristotle (2009). <i>Politics</i>. Translated by Ernest Barker and revised with introduction and notes by R. F. Stalley (1st ed. 1995 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.&#160;320–321. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953873-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953873-7">978-0-19-953873-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=Aristotle&amp;rft.btitle=Politics&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.edition=1st+ed.+1995&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-953873-7&amp;rft.pages=320-321&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Alan_O._Ebenstein" title="Alan O. Ebenstein">Ebenstein, Alan</a>; William Ebenstein (2002). <i>Introduction to Political Thinkers</i>. Wadsworth Group. p.&#160;59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft.aulast=Ebenstein&amp;rft.au=William+Ebenstein&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Political+Thinkers&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=59&amp;rft.pub=Wadsworth+Group&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a different reading of social and economic processes in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> and <i>Politics</i> see Polanyi, K. (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in <i>Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi</i> ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-HutchinsonJohnson-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HutchinsonJohnson_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">D. S. Hutchinson &amp; Monte Ransome Johnson (25 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.protrepticus.info/2015/01/new-reconstruction-includes-greek-text.html">"New Reconstruction, includes Greek text"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=D.+S.+Hutchinson&amp;rft.au=Monte+Ransome+Johnson&amp;rft.btitle=New+Reconstruction%2C+includes+Greek+text&amp;rft.date=2015-01-25&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.protrepticus.info%2F2015%2F01%2Fnew-reconstruction-includes-greek-text.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i> I 1447a</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i> III</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i> IV</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i> VI</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i> XXVI</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&amp;pg=PR3&amp;source=gbs_selected_pages&amp;cad=0_0">The Complete Fables By Aesop</a> Penguin Classics, 1998. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140446494" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-14-044649-4</a> Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Freeland-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freeland_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Freeland, Cynthia A. (1998). <i>Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle</i>. Penn State University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01730-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01730-9">0-271-01730-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Cynthia+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Freeland&amp;rft.btitle=Feminist+Interpretations+of+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-271-01730-9&amp;rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Morsink-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morsink_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Morsink, Johannes (Spring 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4330727">"Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist?"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i> <b>12</b> (1): 83–112. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00128136">10.1007/bf00128136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Was+Aristotle%27s+Biology+Sexist%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=Johannes&amp;rft.aulast=Morsink&amp;rft.date=1979&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2307%2F4330727&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00128136&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&amp;rft.pages=83-112&amp;rft.ssn=spring&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=12" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Roberts, Aristotle;. "Book I, Chapter 5". In Honeycutt, Lee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html"><i>Rhetoric</i></a>. Translated by Rhys, W. <q>Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Book+I%2C+Chapter+5&amp;rft.aufirst=Aristotle%3B&amp;rft.aulast=Roberts&amp;rft.btitle=Rhetoric&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frhetoric.eserver.org%2Faristotle%2Frhet1-5.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Cornell-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_84-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Terence Irwin and <a href="/wiki/Gail_Fine" title="Gail Fine">Gail Fine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, <i>Aristotle: Introductory Readings.</i> Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynn Thorndike, "Chiromancy in Medieval Latin Manuscripts," <i>Speculum</i> 40 (1965), pp. 674–706; Roger A. Pack, "Pseudo-Arisoteles: Chiromantia," <i>Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge</i> 39 (1972), pp. 289–320; Pack, "A Pseudo-Aristotelian Chiromancy," <i>Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge</i> 36 (1969), pp. 189–241.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, p.&#160;12; Aristotle himself: <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of <i>ex?terikoi logoi</i>, see <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">W. D. Ross</a>, <i>Aristotle's Metaphysics</i> (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a>", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">House, Humphry (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp"><i>Aristotles Poetics</i></a>. p.&#160;35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Humphry&amp;rft.aulast=House&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotles+Poetics&amp;rft.date=1956&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faristotlespoetic032945mbp&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, p.&#160;12.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ammonius (1991). <i>On Aristotle's Categories</i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p.&#160;15. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-2688-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-2688-X">0-8014-2688-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=Ammonius&amp;rft.btitle=On+Aristotle%27s+Categories&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-8014-2688-X&amp;rft.pages=15&amp;rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECicero1874.C2.A7_119-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECicero1874.C2.A7_119_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCicero1874">Cicero 1874</a>, § 119.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Barnes, Jonathan (2001). "Roman Aristotle". In <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Nagy" title="Gregory Nagy">Nagy, Gregory</a>. <i>Greek Literature</i> <b>8</b>. Routledge. p.&#160;174.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Roman+Aristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan&amp;rft.aulast=Barnes&amp;rft.btitle=Greek+Literature&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pages=174&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>—Originally published in <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Barnes, J.</a> (1997). Barnes, J.; Griffin, M., eds. <i>Roman Aristotle</i>. <i>Philosophia Togata</i> <b>II</b> (Oxford). pp.&#160;1–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft.aulast=Barnes&amp;rft.btitle=Roman+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=1-69&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">.The definitive, English study of these questions is <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Barnes, J.</a> (1997). Barnes, J.; Griffin, M., eds. <i>Roman Aristotle</i>. <i>Philosophia Togata</i> <b>II</b> (Oxford). pp.&#160;1–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft.aulast=Barnes&amp;rft.btitle=Roman+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=1-69&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Sulla."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ancient Rome: from the early Republic to the assassination of Julius Caesar – Page 513, Matthew Dillon, Lynda Garland</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 22 – Page 131, Grolier Incorporated – Juvenile Nonfiction</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lord, Carnes (1984). <i>Introduction to the Politics, by Aristotle</i>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/Chicago_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago University Press">Chicago University Press</a>. p.&#160;11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Carnes&amp;rft.aulast=Lord&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Politics%2C+by+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=11&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=Chicago+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Works and Thoughts", <i>A Companion to Aristotle</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 16. See also, <a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, pp.&#160;10–15.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Magee" title="Bryan Magee">Magee, Bryan</a> (2010). <i>The Story of Philosophy</i>. Dorling Kindersley. p.&#160;34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Bryan&amp;rft.aulast=Magee&amp;rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=34&amp;rft.pub=Dorling+Kindersley&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&amp;pg=PA156&amp;dq&amp;hl=en#v=onepage&amp;q=&amp;f=false">A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle&#160;: an encounter</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p.156. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521387604" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-38760-4</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle">"Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"</a>. Britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle+%28Greek+philosopher%29+%93+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F34560%2FAristotle&amp;rft.pub=Britannica.com&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a> (2006) [1926]. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Philosophy" title="The Story of Philosophy">The Story of Philosophy</a></i>. United States: Simon &amp; Schuster, Inc. p.&#160;92. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-73916-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-73916-4">978-0-671-73916-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Will&amp;rft.aulast=Durant&amp;rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-671-73916-4&amp;rft.pages=92&amp;rft.place=United+States&amp;rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster%2C+Inc.&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Life of Alexander</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Sorabji, ed. <i>Aristotle Transformed</i> London, 1990, 20, 28, 35–36.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Sorabji, ed. <i>Aristotle Transformed</i> (London, 1990) 233–274.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Sorabji, ed. <i>Aristotle Transformed</i> (London, 1990) 20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>, <i>Aristutalis</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rasa'il</i> I, 103, 17, Abu Rida</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Comm. Magnum</i> in Aristotle<i>,</i> De Anima<i>, III, 2, 43 Crawford</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>al-mua'llim al-thani</i>, <i>Aristutalis</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1996). <i>The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia</i>. Curzon Press. pp.&#160;59–60. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-0314-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-0314-4">0-7007-0314-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Hossein&amp;rft.aulast=Nasr&amp;rft.btitle=The+Islamic+Intellectual+Tradition+in+Persia&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-7007-0314-4&amp;rft.pages=59-60&amp;rft.pub=Curzon+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence">"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Influence+of+Arabic+and+Islamic+Philosophy+on+the+Latin+West&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Farabic-islamic-influence&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance">"Aristotelianism in the Renaissance"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Aristotelianism+in+the+Renaissance&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faristotelianism-renaissance&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey Chaucer, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a></i>, Prologue, lines 295–295</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno</i> <i>seder tra filosofica famiglia.</i><br />
<i>Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno</i>:<br />
<i>quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone</i><br />
<i>che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</i><br />
Dante, <i>L'Inferno</i> (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durant, p. 86</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelvin Knight, <i>Aristotelian Philosophy</i>, Polity Press, 2007, <i>passim</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410">Aristotle Mountains.</a> <a href="/wiki/SCAR" class="mw-redirect" title="SCAR">SCAR</a> <a href="/wiki/Composite_Antarctic_Gazetteer" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite Antarctic Gazetteer">Composite Antarctic Gazetteer</a>.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<p>The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.</p>
<div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Ackrill" title="J. L. Ackrill">Ackrill J. L.</a> (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Ackrill, J. L. (1981). <i>Aristotle the Philosopher</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Ackrill&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle+the+Philosopher&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Adler" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer Adler">Adler, Mortimer J.</a> (1978). <i><a href="/wiki/Aristotle_for_Everybody" title="Aristotle for Everybody">Aristotle for Everybody</a></i>. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Mortimer+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Adler&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle+for+Everybody&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> A popular exposition for the general reader.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B, eds. <i>On Aristotle's Categories</i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-2688-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-2688-X">0-8014-2688-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=Ammonius&amp;rft.btitle=On+Aristotle%27s+Categories&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-8014-2688-X&amp;rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Aristotle (1908–1952). <i>The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=Aristotle&amp;rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Aristotle+Translated+into+English+Under+the+Editorship+of+W.+D.+Ross%2C+12+vols&amp;rft.date=1908%2F1952&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> These translations are available in several places online; see External links.</li>
<li>Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1412048435" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-4120-4843-5</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Bocheński, I. M. (1951). <i>Ancient Formal Logic</i>. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=I.+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Boche%C5%84ski&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Formal+Logic&amp;rft.date=1951&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Amsterdam&amp;rft.pub=North-Holland+Publishing+Company&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Bolotin, David (1998). <i>An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.</i> Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Burnyeat" title="Myles Burnyeat">Burnyeat, M. F.</a> <i>et al.</i> (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). <i>Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle</i>. Monuments of Western Thought <b>1</b>. Waltham, Mass: Blaisdell Publishing Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Thought%3A+Plato+and+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1969&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Waltham%2C+Mass&amp;rft.pub=Blaisdell+Publishing+Co.&amp;rft.series=Monuments+of+Western+Thought&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696.</li>
<li>Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Ferguson, John (1972). <i>Aristotle</i>. New York: Twayne Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Ferguson&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Twayne+Publishers&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>De Groot, Jean (2014). <i>Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC</i>, Parmenides Publishing, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781930972834" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4</a></li>
<li>Frede, Michael. (1987). <i>Essays in Ancient Philosophy</i>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller" title="Benjamin Apthorp Gould Fuller">Fuller, B.A.G.</a> (1923). <i>Aristotle</i>. History of Greek Philosophy <b>3</b>. London: Cape.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=B.A.G.&amp;rft.aulast=Fuller&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1923&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Cape&amp;rft.series=History+of+Greek+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Gendlin" title="Eugene Gendlin">Gendlin, Eugene T.</a> (2012). <i>Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima</i>, Volume 1: Books I &amp; II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/">Available online in PDF.</a></li>
<li>Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). <i>Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). <i>A History of Greek Philosophy</i> <b>6</b>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=W.+K.+C.&amp;rft.aulast=Guthrie&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Greek+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Halper, Edward C. (2009). <i>One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta</i>, Parmenides Publishing, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781930972216" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6</a>.</li>
<li>Halper, Edward C. (2005). <i>One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books</i>, Parmenides Publishing, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781930972056" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Terence_Irwin" title="Terence Irwin">Irwin, T. H.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf">Aristotle's First Principles</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198242905" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-824290-5</a>.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard, ed. <i>Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Werner&amp;rft.aulast=Jaeger&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+Fundamentals+of+the+History+of+His+Development&amp;rft.date=1948&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Jori" title="Alberto Jori">Jori, Alberto</a>. (2003). <i>Aristotele</i>, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "<a href="/wiki/International_Academy_of_the_History_of_Science" title="International Academy of the History of Science">International Academy of the History of Science</a>") <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8842497371" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 88-424-9737-1</a>.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). <i>Aristotle Dictionary</i>. New York: Philosophical Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle+Dictionary&amp;rft.date=1962&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Knight, Kelvin. (2007). <i>Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre</i>, Polity Press.</li>
<li>Lewis, Frank A. (1991). <i>Substance and Predication in Aristotle</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._R._Lloyd" title="G. E. R. Lloyd">Lloyd, G. E. R.</a> (1968). <i>Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521094569" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-09456-9</a>.</li>
<li>Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to <i>The Politics</i>, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.</li>
<li>Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.</li>
<li>Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.). (2012) <i>Reading Aristotle: Physics</i> VII.3: <i>What is Alteration?</i> <i>Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference</i>, Parmenides Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781930972735" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">McKeon, Richard (1973). <i>Introduction to Aristotle</i> (2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.aulast=McKeon&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.edition=2d&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i> <b>50</b>: 125–150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=The+Platonism+of+Aristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=G.+E.+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Owen&amp;rft.date=1965&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&amp;rft.pages=125-150&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=50" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). <i>Articles on Aristotle</i> Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]</li>
<li>Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). <i>Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B, eds. <i>The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle</i>. Buffalo: Prometheus Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.au=Plato&amp;rft.btitle=The+Worlds+of+Plato+and+Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1979&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Buffalo&amp;rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Rose, Lynn E. (1968). <i>Aristotle's Syllogistic</i>. Springfield: Charles C Thomas Publisher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Lynn+E.&amp;rft.aulast=Rose&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Syllogistic&amp;rft.date=1968&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Springfield&amp;rft.pub=Charles+C+Thomas+Publisher&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">Ross, Sir David</a> (1995). <i>Aristotle</i> (6th ed.). London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Sir+David&amp;rft.aulast=Ross&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.edition=6th&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.</li>
<li>Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.</li>
<li>Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's <i>Politics</i>", in <i>The City and Man</i>, Chicago; Rand McNally.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Swanson, Judith (1992). <i>The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Judith&amp;rft.aulast=Swanson&amp;rft.btitle=The+Public+and+the+Private+in+Aristotle%27s+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Ithaca&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060211201625/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html">"Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html"><i>Greek Biology and Medicine</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html">the original</a> on 11 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Aristotle%27s+Biology&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+Osborn&amp;rft.aulast=Taylor&amp;rft.btitle=Greek+Biology+and+Medicine&amp;rft.date=1922&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20060327222953%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancientlibrary.com%2Fmedicine%2F0051.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Babcock_Veatch" title="Henry Babcock Veatch">Veatch, Henry B.</a> (1974). <i>Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation</i>. Bloomington: Indiana U. Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+B.&amp;rft.aulast=Veatch&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+A+Contemporary+Appreciation&amp;rft.date=1974&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Bloomington&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+U.+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> For the general reader.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". <i>Aristotle and the Later Tradition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy" title="Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy">Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy</a>. Suppl. pp.&#160;41–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Universals+and+Particular+Forms+in+Aristotle%27s+Metaphysics&amp;rft.aufirst=M.+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Woods&amp;rft.btitle=Aristotle+and+the+Later+Tradition&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pages=41-56&amp;rft.series=Oxford+Studies+in+Ancient+Philosophy&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks infobox" style="float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<tr>
<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY">Library resources</a> about<br />
<b>Aristotle</b>
<hr /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;">
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Aristotle&amp;library=OLBP">Online books</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Aristotle">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Aristotle&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.1em">By Aristotle</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;">
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&amp;au=Aristotle&amp;library=OLBP">Online books</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&amp;au=Aristotle">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&amp;au=Aristotle&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="padding:0.25em 0.5em 0.5em 0.75em;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#f9f9f9;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">
<div style="clear:both;">Find more about<br />
<b>Aristotle</b><br />
at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" title="Search Wiktionary"><img alt="Search Wiktionary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/25px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" width="25" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/50px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></a></td>
<td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Aristotle">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" title="Search Commons"><img alt="Search Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="18" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/37px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" class="extiw" title="c:Special:Search/Aristotle">Media</a> from Commons</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" title="Search Wikiquote"><img alt="Search Wikiquote" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/21px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" width="21" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/42px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Aristotle">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Aristotle" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="Search Wikisource" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="24" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/48px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Aristotle" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Aristotle">Texts</a> from Wikisource</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" title="Search Wikiversity"><img alt="Search Wikiversity" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/25px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png" width="25" height="23" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/38px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/50px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="900" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Aristotle" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Aristotle">Learning resources</a> from Wikiversity</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:25px;">
<td><a href="//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q868" title="Search Wikidata"><img alt="Search Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/25px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/38px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/50px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></a></td>
<td><a href="//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q868" class="extiw" title="d:Q868">Data</a> from Wikidata</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="38" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Greek <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/el:%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%82" class="extiw" title="s:el:Α?ιστοτέλης">Ἀ?ιστοτέλης</a></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/A/Aristotle/">Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/browse/aristotle">Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/thinker/2553">Aristotle</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a>.</li>
<li>At the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
<dl>
<dd>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/">Aristotle (general article)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/">Biology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/">Logic</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/">Motion and its Place in Nature</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/">Poetics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/">Politics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</dd>
</dl>
</li>
<li>From the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
<dl>
<dd>
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle">Aristotle (general article)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/">Aristotle in the Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/">Biology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/">Causality</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/">Commentators on Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/">Logic</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/">Natural philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/">Non-contradiction</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/">Political theory</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/">Rhetoric</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</dd>
</dl>
</li>
<li><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" />&#160;<cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Turner, William (1907). "<a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Aristotle" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i> <b>1</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Aristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.date=1907&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" />&#160;<cite class="citation encyclopaedia">"<a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Aristotle" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>". <i><a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work">The New Student's Reference Work</a></i>. 1914.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=Aristotle&amp;rft.btitle=The+New+Student%27s+Reference+Work&amp;rft.date=1914&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" />&#160;<cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Laërtius, Diogenes</a> (1925). "<a href="//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_V#Aristotle" class="extiw" title="s:Lives of the Eminent Philosophers/Book V">The Peripatetics: Aristotle</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Eminent Philosophers">Lives of the Eminent Philosophers</a></i> <b>1:5</b>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks" title="Robert Drew Hicks">Hicks, Robert Drew</a> (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAristotle&amp;rft.atitle=The+Peripatetics%3A+Aristotle&amp;rft.aufirst=Diogenes&amp;rft.aulast=La%C3%ABrtius&amp;rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Eminent+Philosophers&amp;rft.date=1925&amp;rft.edition=Two+volume&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.pub=Loeb+Classical+Library&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//openlibrary.org/authors/OL22105A">Works by Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library" title="Open Library">Open Library</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.concharto.org/search/eventsearch.htm?_tag=timeline%20of%20aristotle&amp;_maptype=0">Timeline of Aristotle's life</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://planetmath.org/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/PlanetMath" title="PlanetMath">PlanetMath.org</a>..</li>
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>Collections of works</dt>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>At the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (primarily in English).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Aristotle">Works by Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Aristotle%22%29%20OR%20%28%22384-322%22%20AND%20Aristotle%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librivox.org/author/602">Works by Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" width="15" height="15" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li>
<li><span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(English)</span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(Greek)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&amp;collection=Any&amp;type=text&amp;lang=Any&amp;lookup=Aristotle">Perseus Project</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a>.</li>
<li>At the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/">University of Adelaide</a> (primarily in English).</li>
<li><span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(Greek)</span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(French)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm">P. Remacle</a></li>
<li>The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of <i>Aristotle's Works</i> in Greek (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/">PDF</a>&#160;<b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/">DJVU</a>)</li>
<li>Bekker's Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of the complete works of Aristotle at Archive.org:
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera01arisrich">vol.&#160;1</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera02arisrich">vol.&#160;2</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera03arisrich">vol.&#160;3</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera04arisrich">vol.&#160;4</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera05arisrich">vol.&#160;5</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li><span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(English)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=classical:aristotle">Aristotle Collection</a> (translation).</li>
</ul>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Links to related articles</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;font-size:114%;">
<div style="padding:0px;">
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Peripatetics" title="Template:Peripatetics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Peripatetics" title="Template talk:Peripatetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Peripatetics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">philosophers</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Greek era</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chamaeleon_(philosopher)" title="Chamaeleon (philosopher)">Chamaeleon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phaenias_of_Eresus" title="Phaenias of Eresus">Phaenias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Praxiphanes" title="Praxiphanes">Praxiphanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(son_of_Aristotle)" title="Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum" title="Demetrius of Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_of_Rhodes" title="Hieronymus of Rhodes">Hieronymus of Rhodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satyrus_the_Peripatetic" title="Satyrus the Peripatetic">Satyrus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Roman era</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cratippus_of_Pergamon" title="Cratippus of Pergamon">Cratippus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boethus_of_Sidon" title="Boethus of Sidon">Boethus of Sidon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristocles_of_Messene" title="Aristocles of Messene">Aristocles of Messene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aspasius" title="Aspasius">Aspasius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adrastus_of_Aphrodisias" title="Adrastus of Aphrodisias">Adrastus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Elder" title="Olympiodorus the Elder">Olympiodorus the Elder</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Metaphysics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Metaphysicians</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necessity" title="Necessity">Necessity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics" title="Category:Metaphysics">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Metaphysics" title="Portal:Metaphysics">Portal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Ethics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Theories</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Ethics of care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil">Evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering or Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">full index...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Philosophers</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">William Frankena</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">more...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ethics" title="Portal:Ethics">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_history" title="Template:Natural history"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_history" title="Template talk:Natural history"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Natural_history&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Pioneering<br />
naturalists</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong> (<i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<i>De Natura Animalium</i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">The Renaissance</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> (<i>Pinax theatri botanici</i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner)" title="Historia animalium (Gessner)">Historia animalium</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> (<i>Avium Praecipuarum</i>, <i>New Herball</i>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Steller" title="Georg Wilhelm Steller">Georg Steller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Fabricius" title="Johan Christian Fabricius">Johan Christian Fabricius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray)" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" title="The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_Zoologique" title="Philosophie Zoologique">Philosophie Zoologique</a></i>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Montagu_(naturalist)" title="George Montagu (naturalist)">George Montagu</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithological_Dictionary" title="Ornithological Dictionary">Ornithological Dictionary</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Archipelago" title="The Malay Archipelago">The Malay Archipelago</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birds_of_America" title="The Birds of America">The Birds of America</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Henry_Gosse" title="Philip Henry Gosse">Philip Henry Gosse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_Hooker" class="mw-redirect" title="William Jackson Hooker">William Jackson Hooker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Jardine,_7th_Baronet" title="Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet">William Jardine</a> (<i>The Naturalist's Library</i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lydekker" title="Richard Lydekker">Richard Lydekker</a> (<i>The Royal Natural History</i>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Thayer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Hugh B. Cott</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Niko Tinbergen</a> (<i>The Study of Instinct</i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Aggression" title="On Aggression">On Aggression</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> (<i>The Dancing Bees</i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lockley" title="Ronald Lockley">Ronald Lockley</a> (<i>Shearwaters</i>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td class="navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:0%;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<div><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" class="image" title="Sceliphron wasp building nest"><img alt="Sceliphron wasp building nest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/85px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" width="85" height="123" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/128px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/170px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280" /></a></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">Natural history museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalists</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists" title="List of parson-naturalists">List</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_societies" title="Category:Natural history societies">Natural History Societies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" title="List of natural history dealers">List of natural history dealers</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_science&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">Theory choice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">Theory-ladenness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Metatheory_of_science" title="Category:Metatheory of science">Metatheory<br />
of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li>{<a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a>}</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a>-<a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Philosophy of</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">thermal and statistical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">Motion</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_environment" title="Philosophy of environment">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">Related topics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a> by era</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Ancient</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurians</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Medieval</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Classical modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Late modern</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy_of_science" title="Portal:Philosophy of science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_of_language&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Herder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Noir%C3%A9" title="Ludwig Noiré">Ludwig Noiré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Fritz Mauthner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Paul Ricœur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Benjamin Lee Whorf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Bergmann" title="Gustav Bergmann">Gustav Bergmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Hawthorne" title="John Hawthorne">John Hawthorne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Neale" title="Stephen Neale">Stephen Neale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Paul Watzlawick</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_theory_of_meaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast theory of meaning">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivist theory of names</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verification_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Verification theory">Verification theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" title="Meaning (linguistics)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></b></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jurisprudence" title="Template talk:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Jurisprudence&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal theory">Legal theory</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Allan_(legal_philosopher)" title="Trevor Allan (legal philosopher)">Allan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Amar" title="Akhil Amar">Amar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Betti" title="Emilio Betti">Betti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bickel" title="Alexander Bickel">Bickel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Castanheira_Neves" title="António Castanheira Neves">Castanheira Neves</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zechariah_Chafee" title="Zechariah Chafee">Chafee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Coleman" title="Jules Coleman">Coleman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Del_Vecchio" title="Giorgio Del Vecchio">Del Vecchio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Feinberg" title="Joel Feinberg">Feinberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Fineman" class="mw-redirect" title="Martha Fineman">Fineman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_N._Frank" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome N. Frank">Frank</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Gardner_(lawyer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Gardner (lawyer)">Gardner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Green_(philosopher)" title="Leslie Green (philosopher)">Green</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Germain_Grisez" title="Germain Grisez">Grisez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Hand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Newcomb_Hohfeld" title="Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld">Hohfeld</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.">Holmes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_K%C3%B6chler" title="Hans Köchler">Köchler</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Kramer" title="Matthew Kramer">Kramer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Lombard%C3%ADa" title="Pedro Lombardía">Lombardía</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Vilhelm_Lundstedt" title="Anders Vilhelm Lundstedt">Lundstedt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lyons_(philosopher)" title="David Lyons (philosopher)">Lyons</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neil_MacCormick" title="Neil MacCormick">MacCormick</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petrazycki" title="Leon Petrazycki">Petrazycki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_Puchta" title="Georg Friedrich Puchta">Puchta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Reale" title="Miguel Reale">Reale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Simmonds" title="Nigel Simmonds">Simmonds</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Soml%C3%B3" title="Félix Somló">Somló</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_Tribe" title="Laurence Tribe">Tribe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Waldron</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_country_legal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="List of country legal systems">Legal system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Li</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">Rational-legal authority</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_law_articles" title="Index of philosophy of law articles">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_law" title="Category:Philosophy of law">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li>
<li><img alt="WikiProject" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" title="WikiProject" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Law" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Law">WikiProject Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">WikiProject Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&amp;target=Template:Jurisprudence&amp;hidebots=0">changes</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Ancient_Greece_topics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</abbr></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#History" title="Ancient Greece">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Periods</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" title="Roman Greece">Roman Greece</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Doric_hexapolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Doric hexapolis">Doris</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argos" title="Argos">Argos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalkis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeotarch" title="Boeotarch">Boeotarch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphē paranóm?n</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apella" title="Apella">Apella</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harmost" title="Harmost">Harmost</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Lydia" title="List of kings of Lydia">Kings of Lydia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Aristotle</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope" title="Diogenes of Sinope">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thales" title="Thales">Thales</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Others</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agesilaus_II" title="Agesilaus II">Agesilaus II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agis_II" title="Agis II">Agis II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aratus_of_Sicyon" title="Aratus of Sicyon">Aratus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Lycurgus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lysander" title="Lysander">Lysander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milo_of_Croton" title="Milo of Croton">Milo of Croton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miltiades" title="Miltiades">Miltiades</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(general)" title="Pausanias (general)">Pausanias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip of Macedon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philopoemen" title="Philopoemen">Philopoemen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Praxiteles" title="Praxiteles">Praxiteles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Groups</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of Ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By culture</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Culture" title="Ancient Greece">Culture</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_calendars" title="Hellenic calendars">Calendar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_wedding_customs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek wedding customs">Wedding customs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_science" title="Category:Ancient Greek science">Sciences</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a>)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a> (<a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures" title="List of Greek mythological figures">mythological figures</a></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleusis" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Structures</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphaea" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera <span style="font-size:90%;">(Olympia)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus <span style="font-size:90%;">(Olympia)</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece-related_lists" title="Category:Ancient Greece-related lists">Lists</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow navbox-title" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<td style="padding:2px">
<table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/7524651">WorldCat Identities</a></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Virtual_International_Authority_File" title="Virtual International Authority File">VIAF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/7524651">7524651</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n79004182">n79004182</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Name_Identifier" title="International Standard Name Identifier">ISNI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isni.org/isni/0000000123748095">0000 0001 2374 8095</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/118650130">118650130</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/LIBRIS" title="LIBRIS">SELIBR</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//libris.kb.se/auth/174754">174754</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_universitaire_de_documentation" title="Système universitaire de documentation">SUDOC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idref.fr/026690276">026690276</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13091331s">cb13091331s</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13091331s">(data)</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Union_List_of_Artist_Names" title="Union List of Artist Names">ULAN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&amp;role=&amp;nation=&amp;subjectid=500259120">500259120</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/MusicBrainz" title="MusicBrainz">MusicBrainz</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//musicbrainz.org/artist/2f96bf3c-ca56-4c20-a374-4b846056c5e6">2f96bf3c-ca56-4c20-a374-4b846056c5e6</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia" title="National Library of Australia">NLA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36246937">36246937</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00431694">00431694</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="National Library of the Czech Republic">NKC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=jn19981000140&amp;CON_LNG=ENG">jn19981000140</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Centrale_per_il_Catalogo_Unico" title="Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico">ICCU</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opac.sbn.it/opacsbn/opac/iccu/scheda_authority.jsp?bid=IT\ICCU\CFIV\009389">IT\ICCU\CFIV\009389</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_State_Library" title="Russian State Library">RLS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&amp;find_code=SYS&amp;adjacent=Y&amp;local_base=RSL11&amp;request=000078930&amp;CON_LNG=ENG">000078930</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&amp;authority_id=XX4874856">XX4874856</a></span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>


<!--
NewPP limit report
Parsed by mw1169
Cached time: 20160708133348
Cache expiry: 2592000
Dynamic content: false
CPU time usage: 1.783 seconds
Real time usage: 2.159 seconds
Preprocessor visited node count: 9830/1000000
Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000
Post?expand include size: 573460/2097152 bytes
Template argument size: 156281/2097152 bytes
Highest expansion depth: 17/40
Expensive parser function count: 8/500
Lua time usage: 0.696/10.000 seconds
Lua memory usage: 8.06 MB/50 MB
Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1-->

<!--
Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)
100.00% 1593.020      1 - -total
 25.21%  401.587      1 - Template:Reflist
 17.85%  284.387     47 - Template:Cite_book
 14.47%  230.567      1 - Template:Navboxes
  9.54%  151.909      1 - Template:Infobox_philosopher
  9.14%  145.533      1 - Template:Infobox_person
  8.82%  140.559      2 - Template:Infobox
  8.23%  131.112     16 - Template:Navbox
  7.61%  121.297      2 - Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_sections
  4.83%   76.881      1 - Template:Ancient_Greece_topics
-->

<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:308-0!*!0!!en!4!* and timestamp 20160708133346 and revision id 728907803
 -->
<noscript><img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" /></noscript></div>					<div class="printfooter">
						Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;oldid=728907803">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;oldid=728907803</a>"					</div>
				<div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotle" title="Category:Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:384_BC_births" title="Category:384 BC births">384 BC births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:322_BC_deaths" title="Category:322 BC deaths">322 BC deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:4th-century_BC_philosophers" title="Category:4th-century BC philosophers">4th-century BC philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:4th-century_BC_writers" title="Category:4th-century BC writers">4th-century BC writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_philosophers" title="Category:Academic philosophers">Academic philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Acting_theorists" title="Category:Acting theorists">Acting theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians">Ancient Greek mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Greek philosophers">Ancient Greek philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_physicists" title="Category:Ancient Greek physicists">Ancient Greek physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks_in_Macedon" title="Category:Ancient Greeks in Macedon">Ancient Greeks in Macedon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Stagirites" title="Category:Ancient Stagirites">Ancient Stagirites</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Attic_Greek_writers" title="Category:Attic Greek writers">Attic Greek writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cosmologists" title="Category:Cosmologists">Cosmologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Empiricists" title="Category:Empiricists">Empiricists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_biologists" title="Category:Ancient Greek biologists">Ancient Greek biologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_logicians" title="Category:Ancient Greek logicians">Ancient Greek logicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_logic" title="Category:History of logic">History of logic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Humor_researchers" title="Category:Humor researchers">Humor researchers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysicians" title="Category:Metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Greek_meteorologists" title="Category:Greek meteorologists">Greek meteorologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metic_philosophers_in_Classical_Athens" title="Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens">Metic philosophers in Classical Athens</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_philosophers" title="Category:Natural philosophers">Natural philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">Peripatetic philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_and_tutors_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great">Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_ancient_Chalcidice" title="Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice">Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_language" title="Category:Philosophers of language">Philosophers of language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers of law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_technology" title="Category:Philosophers of technology">Philosophers of technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophers" title="Category:Political philosophers">Political philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric_theorists" title="Category:Rhetoric theorists">Rhetoric theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Trope_theorists" title="Category:Trope theorists">Trope theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_literary_critics" title="Category:Ancient literary critics">Ancient literary critics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtue_ethicists" title="Category:Virtue ethicists">Virtue ethicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zoologists" title="Category:Zoologists">Zoologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Greek_male_writers" title="Category:Greek male writers">Greek male writers</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_citations_with_accessdate_and_no_URL" title="Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL">Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2014" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2014">Use dmy dates from March 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_DMOZ_links" title="Category:Articles with DMOZ links">Articles with DMOZ links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1913_Catholic_Encyclopedia_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference">Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_citation_to_the_NSRW" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW">Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_citation_to_the_NSRW_with_an_wstitle_parameter" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter">Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_the_template_Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers">Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Greek-language_external_links" title="Category:Articles with Greek-language external links">Articles with Greek-language external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_French-language_external_links" title="Category:Articles with French-language external links">Articles with French-language external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:AC_with_15_elements" title="Category:AC with 15 elements">AC with 15 elements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_VIAF_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers">Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_LCCN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_ISNI_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers">Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_GND_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers">Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_SELIBR_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers">Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_BNF_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers">Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_ULAN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_MusicBrainz_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers">Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NLA_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers">Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_SBN_identifiers" title="Category:Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers">Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers</a></li></ul></div></div>				<div class="visualClear"></div>
							</div>
		</div>
		<div id="mw-navigation">
			<h2>Navigation menu</h2>

			<div id="mw-head">
									<div id="p-personal" role="navigation" class="" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label">
						<h3 id="p-personal-label">Personal tools</h3>
						<ul>
							<li id="pt-anonuserpage">Not logged in</li><li id="pt-anontalk"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li><li id="pt-anoncontribs"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Aristotle" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory">Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Aristotle" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o">Log in</a></li>						</ul>
					</div>
									<div id="left-navigation">
										<div id="p-namespaces" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-namespaces-label">
						<h3 id="p-namespaces-label">Namespaces</h3>
						<ul>
															<li  id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Aristotle"  title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></span></li>
															<li  id="ca-talk"><span><a href="/wiki/Talk:Aristotle"  title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t" rel="discussion">Talk</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-variants" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-variants-label">
												<h3 id="p-variants-label">
							<span>Variants</span><a href="#"></a>
						</h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
									</div>
				<div id="right-navigation">
										<div id="p-views" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-views-label">
						<h3 id="p-views-label">Views</h3>
						<ul>
															<li id="ca-view" class="selected"><span><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" >Read</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-viewsource"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;action=edit"  title="This page is protected.&#10;You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></span></li>
															<li id="ca-history" class="collapsible"><span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;action=history"  title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></span></li>
													</ul>
					</div>
										<div id="p-cactions" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-cactions-label">
						<h3 id="p-cactions-label"><span>More</span><a href="#"></a></h3>

						<div class="menu">
							<ul>
															</ul>
						</div>
					</div>
										<div id="p-search" role="search">
						<h3>
							<label for="searchInput">Search</label>
						</h3>

						<form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform">
							<div id="simpleSearch">
							<input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"/><input type="hidden" value="Special:Search" name="title"/><input type="submit" name="fulltext" value="Search" title="Search Wikipedia for this text" id="mw-searchButton" class="searchButton mw-fallbackSearchButton"/><input type="submit" name="go" value="Go" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists" id="searchButton" class="searchButton"/>							</div>
						</form>
					</div>
									</div>
			</div>
			<div id="mw-panel">
				<div id="p-logo" role="banner"><a class="mw-wiki-logo" href="/wiki/Main_Page"  title="Visit the main page"></a></div>
						<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-navigation' aria-labelledby='p-navigation-label'>
			<h3 id='p-navigation-label'>Navigation</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-mainpage-description"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-featuredcontent"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Featured_content" title="Featured content – the best of Wikipedia">Featured content</a></li><li id="n-currentevents"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Find background information on current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Load a random article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-sitesupport"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en" title="Support us">Donate to Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-shoplink"><a href="//shop.wikimedia.org" title="Visit the Wikipedia store">Wikipedia store</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-interaction' aria-labelledby='p-interaction-label'>
			<h3 id='p-interaction-label'>Interaction</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="n-help"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Find out about Wikipedia">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-portal"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="About the project, what you can do, where to find things">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes in the wiki [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-contactpage"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-tb' aria-labelledby='p-tb-label'>
			<h3 id='p-tb-label'>Tools</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Aristotle" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Aristotle" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;oldid=728907803" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-wikibase"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q868" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li><li id="t-cite"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Aristotle&amp;id=728907803" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-coll-print_export' aria-labelledby='p-coll-print_export-label'>
			<h3 id='p-coll-print_export-label'>Print/export</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=book_creator&amp;referer=Aristotle">Create a book</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rdf2latex"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&amp;bookcmd=render_article&amp;arttitle=Aristotle&amp;returnto=Aristotle&amp;oldid=728907803&amp;writer=rdf2latex">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-wikibase-otherprojects' aria-labelledby='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>
			<h3 id='p-wikibase-otherprojects-label'>In other projects</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Aristotle" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Aristotle" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Aristotle" hreflang="en">Wikisource</a></li>					</ul>
							</div>
		</div>
			<div class="portal" role="navigation" id='p-lang' aria-labelledby='p-lang-label'>
			<h3 id='p-lang-label'>Languages</h3>

			<div class="body">
									<ul>
						<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="//af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als"><a href="//als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><a href="//am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%AA%E1%88%B5%E1%8C%A3%E1%8C%A3%E1%88%8A%E1%88%B5" title="አሪስጣጣሊስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang"><a href="//ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="أرسطو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3til" title="Aristótil – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup"><a href="//roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Aromanian" lang="roa-rup" hreflang="roa-rup">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as"><a href="//as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%27%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B2" title="?ৰিষ?ট'টল – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B2" title="?রিস?টটল – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristot%C3%A9l%C4%93s" title="Aristotélēs – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms"><a href="//map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Basa Banyumasan" lang="map-bms" hreflang="map-bms">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="//ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡорт?а</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ры?тоцель – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Белару?ка?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ры?тот?ль – белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Белару?ка? (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="//bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%82" title="अरस?तू – भोजप?री" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजप?री</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="?ри?тотел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Българ?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – бур?ад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Бур?ад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B2til" title="Aristòtil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a href="//ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel%C3%A9s" title="Aristotelés – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co"><a href="//co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotele" title="Aristotele – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb"><a href="//dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Α?ιστοτέλης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml"><a href="//eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="eml" hreflang="eml">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelo" title="Aristotelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a href="//ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teli" title="Aristóteli – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="ارسطو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">?ارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a href="//hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><a href="//fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristote" title="Aristote – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="//fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arastotail" title="Arastotail – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亞里斯多德 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><a href="//gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%8F%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B2" title="?રિસ?ટોટલ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu">ગ?જરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got"><a href="//got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8D%84%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8D%84%F0%90%8C%B4%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83" title="?????????????????? – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got">????????</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom"><a href="//gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%86%A0%ED%85%94%EB%A0%88%EC%8A%A4" title="아리스토텔레스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Արիստոտել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="अरस?त? – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन?दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotele" title="Aristotele – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="//ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os"><a href="//os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="//xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-Aristotle" title="U-Aristotle – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><a href="//is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">?slenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotele" title="Aristotele – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95" title="?ריסטו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristot%C3%A9l%C3%A8s" title="Aristotélès – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="//kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಅರಿಸ?ಟಾಟಲ?‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn">ಕನ?ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94" title="?რისტ?ტელე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქ?რთული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteli" title="Aristoteli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="//ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C3%AEstoteles" title="Arîstoteles – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="//ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj"><a href="//mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a href="//lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="//lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelis" title="Aristotelis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelis" title="Aristotelis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><a href="//lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotele" title="Aristotele – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="//li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a href="//jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/aristoteles" title="aristoteles – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="//lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arisztotel%C3%A9sz" title="Arisztotelész – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="?ри?тотел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македон?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD" title="അരിസ?റ?റോട?ടിൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a href="//mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotli" title="Aristotli – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2" title="अॅरिस?टॉटल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf"><a href="//xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94" title="?რისტ?ტელე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf">მ?რგ?ლური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="اريسطو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn"><a href="//mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="ارسطو – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn">ماز?رونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min"><a href="//min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min">Baso Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="//cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%85%E1%80%B9%E1%80%85%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA" title="အရစ္စ?ို?ယ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="//nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – N?huatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">N?huatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="//nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%82" title="अरस?तू – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2" title="?रिस?टोटल – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%86%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B9" title="アリストテレス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">?охчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov"><a href="//nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristot%C3%A9les" title="Aristotéles – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B2tel" title="Aristòtel – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or"><a href="//or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%B2" title="ଆରିଷ?ଟୋଟଲ – Oriya" lang="or" hreflang="or">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om"><a href="//om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristootil" title="Aristootil – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arastu" title="Arastu – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%82" title="ਅਰਸਤੂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag"><a href="//pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="ارسطو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88" title="ارستو – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a href="//jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristakl" title="Aristakl – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="//km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%8F" title="អារីស្?ូ? – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសា?្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a href="//pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B2til" title="Aristòtil – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi"><a href="//tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arystoteles" title="Arystoteles – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa"><a href="//kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelis" title="Aristotelis – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?рі?тотель – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Ру?инь?кый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Ру??кий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se"><a href="//se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se">Sámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a href="//sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D" title="अरिस?टाटल? – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa">संस?कृतम?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="//sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotele" title="Aristotele – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteli" title="Aristoteli – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B2tili" title="Aristòtili – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A" title="ඇරිස්ට?ටල් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd"><a href="//sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="ارسطو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Sloven?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenš?ina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu"><a href="//cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%97%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%94%D0%BB%D2%84%D1%8C" title="?рї?тотєл҄ь – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu">Словѣнь?къ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡ?ⰠⰔ?Ⱏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl"><a href="//szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arystoteles" title="Arystoteles – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88" title="ئەرەستوو – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردیی ناوەندی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="?ри?тотел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Срп?ки / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel" title="Aristotel – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ?рп?кохрват?ки</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அரிச?ட?டாட?டில? – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="//kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristot" title="Aristot – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?ри?тотель – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D" title="అరిస?టాటిల? – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెల?గ?</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5" title="อาริสโตเติล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="//tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83" title="?ра?ту – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr"><a href="//chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A1%E1%8F%AB%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%9F" title="Ꭱ????? – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr">?ᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="?рі?тотель – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Україн?ька</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88" title="ارسطو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a href="//vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotele" title="Aristotele – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><a href="//vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel%27" title="Aristotel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo"><a href="//vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristote" title="Aristote – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arist%C3%B3teles" title="Aristóteles – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a href="//wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亞里士多德 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu">?语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90" title="?ריסט? – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="//yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotulu" title="Aristotulu – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="阿里士多德 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="//diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea"><a href="//zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="//bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristuotelis" title="Aristuotelis – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a href="//mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%82" title="अरस?तू – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai">मैथिली</a></li><li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>					</ul>
				<div class='after-portlet after-portlet-lang'><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q868#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div>			</div>
		</div>
				</div>
		</div>
		<div id="footer" role="contentinfo">
							<ul id="footer-info">
											<li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 8 July 2016, at 13:33.</li>
											<li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" style="display:none;"></a>;
additional terms may apply.  By using this site, you agree to the <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="//www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li>
									</ul>
							<ul id="footer-places">
											<li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="wmf:Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" title="Wikipedia:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute">Developers</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li>
											<li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle&amp;mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li>
									</ul>
										<ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint">
											<li id="footer-copyrightico">
							<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="/static/images/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="/static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation"/></a>						</li>
											<li id="footer-poweredbyico">
							<a href="//www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31"/></a>						</li>
									</ul>
						<div style="clear:both"></div>
		</div>
		<script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.state({"ext.globalCssJs.site":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready"});mw.loader.load(["ext.cite.a11y","mediawiki.toc","mediawiki.action.view.postEdit","site","mediawiki.user","mediawiki.hidpi","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.searchSuggest","ext.eventLogging.subscriber","ext.gadget.teahouse","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.DRN-wizard","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.featured-articles-links","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","schema.UniversalLanguageSelector","ext.uls.eventlogger","ext.uls.interlanguage"]);});</script><script>(window.RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":106,"wgHostname":"mw1254"});});</script>
	</body>
</html>
