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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Analytic philosophy</h1>
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<p><b>Analytic philosophy</b> (sometimes <b>analytical philosophy</b>) is a style of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, the majority of university philosophy departments today identify themselves as "analytic" departments.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle03P1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle03P1-1">[1]</a></sup></p>
<p>The term "analytic philosophy" can refer to one of several things:</p>
<ul>
<li>As a philosophical practice,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> it is characterized by an emphasis on argumentative clarity and precision, often making use of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>, conceptual analysis, and to a lesser degree, mathematics and the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></li>
<li>As a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the current practice. Central figures in this historical development are <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivists</a>. In this more specific sense, analytic philosophy is identified with specific philosophical traits (many of which are rejected by many contemporary analytic philosophers), such as:
<ul>
<li>The logical-positivist principle that there are not any specifically philosophical facts and that the object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts. This may be contrasted with the traditional <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>, which considers philosophy to be a special science (i.e. the discipline of knowledge) that investigates the fundamental reasons and principles of everything.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> Consequently, many analytic philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to, those of the natural sciences. This is an attitude that begins with <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, who described his work as that of an "underlabourer" to the achievements of natural scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth century, the most influential advocate of the continuity of philosophy with science was <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup></li>
<li>The principle that the logical clarification of thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">logical form</a> of philosophical propositions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it (often using the <a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">formal grammar</a> and symbolism of a <a href="/wiki/Logical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical system">logical system</a>), to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, and to display its similarity with all other propositions of the same type. However, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></li>
<li>The neglect of generalized philosophical systems in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigorously,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> or ordinary language.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p>According to a characteristic paragraph by Russell:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Modern analytical empiricism [...] differs from that of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume by its incorporation of mathematics and its development of a powerful logical technique. It is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. It has the advantage, in comparison with the philosophies of the system-builders, of being able to tackle its problems one at a time, instead of having to invent at one stroke a block theory of the whole universe. Its methods, in this respect, resemble those of science. I have no doubt that, in so far as philosophical knowledge is possible, it is by such methods that it must be sought; I have also no doubt that, by these methods, many ancient problems are completely soluble.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Jules_Vuillemin" title="Jules Vuillemin">Jules Vuillemin</a> introduced analytic philosophy to France.</p>
<p>Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other philosophical traditions, most notably <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophies</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, and also <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p></p>
<div id="toc" class="toc">
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<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ideal_language_analysis"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ideal language analysis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Logical_positivism"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Logical positivism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Ordinary-language_analysis"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ordinary-language analysis</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Contemporary_analytic_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary analytic philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Philosophy_of_mind_and_cognitive_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of mind and cognitive science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ethics_in_analytic_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ethics in analytic philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Normative_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Normative ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Meta-ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Meta-ethics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Applied_ethics"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Applied ethics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Analytic_philosophy_of_religion"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Analytic philosophy of religion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Political_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Political philosophy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Liberalism"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Liberalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Analytical_Marxism"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Analytical Marxism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Communitarianism"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Communitarianism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Analytic_metaphysics"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Analytic metaphysics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Philosophy_of_language"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of language</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Philosophy_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Epistemology"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Epistemology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Aesthetics"><span class="tocnumber">2.9</span> <span class="toctext">Aesthetics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Topics_of_analytic_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Topics of analytic philosophy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a>, as taught by philosophers like <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a> (1846–1924) and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hill_Green" title="Thomas Hill Green">Thomas Hill Green</a> (1836–1882), dominated English philosophy in the late 19th-century. With reference to this intellectual basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, articulated early analytic philosophy.</p>
<p>Since its beginning, a basic principle of analytic philosophy has been conceptual clarity,<sup id="cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PenguinDicP22-15">[15]</a></sup> in the name of which Moore and Russell rejected <a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a>, which they accused of obscurity—see for example Moore's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_Common_Sense" title="A Defence of Common Sense">A Defence of Common Sense</a></i> and Russell's critique of the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_internal_relations" title="Doctrine of internal relations">doctrine of internal relations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> Inspired by developments in modern logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions.<sup id="cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PenguinDicP22-15">[15]</a></sup> An important aspect of British idealism was <a href="/wiki/Logical_holism" title="Logical holism">logical holism</a> — the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be known wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)#Relations" title="Property (philosophy)">relations</a> between items are actually <i>internal relations</i>, that is, <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a> and the doctrine of <i>external relations</i> — the belief that the world consists of <i>independent</i> facts.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>
<p>Russell, during his early career, along with his collaborator <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, was much influenced by <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> (1848–1925), who developed <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a>, which allowed a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into logical form than was possible using the ancient <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a>. Frege was also influential as a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosopher of mathematics</a> in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>'s 1891 book <i>Philosophie der Arithmetik</i>, which attempted to show that the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number" title="Cardinal number">cardinal number</a> derived from psychical acts of grouping objects and counting them,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Frege sought to show that mathematics and logic have their own validity, independent of the judgments or mental states of individual mathematicians and logicians (which were the basis of arithmetic according to the "<a href="/wiki/Psychologism" title="Psychologism">psychologism</a>" of Husserl's <i>Philosophie</i>). Frege further developed his philosophy of logic and mathematics in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Arithmetic" title="The Foundations of Arithmetic">The Foundations of Arithmetic</a></i> (1884) and <i>The Basic Laws of Arithmetic</i> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Grundgesetze der Arithmetik</i></span>, 1893–1903), where he provided an alternative to psychologistic accounts of the concept of number.</p>
<p>Like Frege, Russell attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a></i> (1903). Later, his book written with Whitehead, <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1910–1913), encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>. Additionally, Russell adopted Frege's predicate logic as his primary philosophical method, a method Russell thought could expose the underlying structure of philosophical problems. For example, the English word <a href="/wiki/To_be" class="mw-redirect" title="To be">"is"</a> has three distinct meanings which predicate logic can express as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li>For the sentence 'the cat <i>is</i> asleep', the <i>is</i> of predication means that "x is P" (denoted as P(x)).</li>
<li>For the sentence 'there <i>is</i> a cat', the <i>is</i> of existence means that "there is an x" (∃x).</li>
<li>For the sentence 'three <i>is</i> half of six', the <i>is</i> of identity means that "x is the same as y" (x=y).</li>
</ul>
<p>Russell sought to resolve various philosophical problems by applying such logical distinctions, most famously in his analysis of <a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">definite descriptions</a> in "<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" (1905).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ideal_language_analysis">Ideal language analysis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Ideal language analysis">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_philosophy" title="Linguistic philosophy">Linguistic philosophy</a></div>
<p>From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like Russell and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> emphasized creating an ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would be free from the ambiguities of ordinary language that, in their opinion, often made philosophy invalid. This philosophical trend can be termed "ideal-language analysis" or "formalism". During this phase, Russell and Wittgenstein sought to understand language (and hence philosophical problems) by using <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">formal logic</a> to formalize the way in which philosophical <a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">statements</a> are made. Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logical atomism in his <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung</i></span>, 1921). He thereby argued that the universe is the totality of actual states of affairs and that these states of affairs can be expressed by the language of first-order predicate logic. Thus a <i>picture</i> of the universe can be construed by means of expressing atomic facts in the form of atomic propositions, and linking them using <a href="/wiki/Logical_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical operator">logical operators</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Logical_positivism">Logical positivism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Logical positivism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></div>
<p>During the late 1920s, '30s, and '40s, a group of philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a> developed Russell and Wittgenstein's formalism into a doctrine known as "<a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>" (or logical empiricism). Logical positivism used formal logical methods to develop an empiricist account of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a>, along with other members of the Vienna Circle, claimed that the truths of logic and mathematics were <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautologies</a>, and those of science were verifiable empirical claims. These two constituted the entire universe of meaningful judgments; anything else was nonsense. The claims of ethics, aesthetics and theology were, accordingly, pseudo-statements, neither true nor false, simply meaningless. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>'s insistence upon the role of <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> in the philosophy of science was a reaction to what he considered the excesses of the logical positivists—although his general method was essentially part of the analytic tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> With the coming to power of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> in 1933, many members of the Vienna and Berlin Circles fled to Britain and to America, which helped to reinforce the dominance of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in the Anglophone countries.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup></p>
<p>Logical positivists typically considered philosophy as having a very limited function. For them, philosophy concerned the clarification of thoughts, rather than having a distinct subject matter of its own. The positivists adopted the <a href="/wiki/Verification_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Verification principle">verification principle</a>, according to which every meaningful statement is either <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analytic</a> or is capable of being verified by experience. This caused the logical positivists to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, as meaningless.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ordinary-language_analysis">Ordinary-language analysis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Ordinary-language analysis">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></div>
<p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, during the late 1940s and 1950s, analytic philosophy became involved with ordinary-language analysis. This resulted in two main trends. One continued Wittgenstein's later philosophy, which differed dramatically from his early work of the <i>Tractatus</i>. The other, known as <a href="/wiki/Ordinary-language_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary-language philosophy">"Oxford philosophy"</a>, involved <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>. In contrast to earlier analytic philosophers (including the early Wittgenstein) who thought philosophers should avoid the deceptive trappings of natural language by constructing ideal languages, ordinary-language philosophers claimed that ordinary language already represented a large number of subtle distinctions that had been unrecognized by the formulation of traditional philosophical theories or problems. While schools such as logical positivism emphasize logical terms, supposed to be universal and separate from contingent factors (such as culture, language, historical conditions), ordinary-language philosophy emphasizes the use of language by ordinary people. The most prominent ordinary-language philosophers during the 1950s were Austin and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a>.</p>
<p>Ordinary-language philosophy often sought to dissolve philosophical problems by showing them to be the result of misunderstanding ordinary language. See for example Ryle (who attempted to dispose of "<a href="/wiki/Ghost_in_the_machine" title="Ghost in the machine">Descartes' myth</a>") and Wittgenstein, among others.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_analytic_philosophy">Contemporary analytic philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Contemporary analytic philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Although contemporary philosophers who self-identify as "analytic" have widely divergent interests, assumptions, and methods—and have often rejected the fundamental premises that defined analytic philosophy before 1960—analytic philosophy in its contemporary state is usually considered to be defined by a particular style<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-4">[4]</a></sup> characterized by precision and thoroughness about a specific topic, and resistance to "imprecise or cavalier discussions of broad topics".<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-23">[23]</a></sup></p>
<p>During the 1950s, logical positivism was challenged influentially by Wittgenstein in the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a> in "<a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>", and Sellars in <i><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind</a></i>. After 1960, Anglophone philosophy began to incorporate a wider range of interests, opinions, and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-23">[23]</a></sup> Still, many philosophers in Britain and America still consider themselves to be "analytic philosophers".<sup id="cite_ref-Searle03P1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle03P1-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-4">[4]</a></sup> They have done so largely by expanding the notion of "analytic philosophy" from the specific programs that dominated Anglophone philosophy before 1960 to a much more general notion of an "analytic" style.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-23">[23]</a></sup> This interpretation of the history is far from universally accepted, and its opponents would say that it grossly downplays the role of Wittgenstein during the 1960s and 1970s.</p>
<p>Many philosophers and historians have attempted to define or describe analytic philosophy. Those definitions often include an emphasis on conceptual analysis: <a href="/wiki/A.P._Martinich" class="mw-redirect" title="A.P. Martinich">A.P. Martinich</a> draws an analogy between analytic philosophy's interest in conceptual analysis and analytic chemistry, which "aims at determining chemical compositions."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Steven D. Hales described analytic philosophy as one of three types of philosophical method practiced in the West: "[i]n roughly reverse order by number of proponents, they are phenomenology, ideological philosophy, and analytic philosophy".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a> agrees that clarity is important: analytic philosophy, he says, has "an implicit commitment—albeit faltering and imperfect—to the ideals of clarity, rigor and argumentation" and it "aims at truth and knowledge, as opposed to moral or spiritual improvement [...] the goal in analytic philosophy is to discover what is true, not to provide a useful recipe for living one's life". Soames also states that analytic philosophy is characterised by "a more piecemeal approach. There is, I think, a widespread presumption within the tradition that it is often possible to make philosophical progress by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range of philosophical issues while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance".<sup id="cite_ref-Soames_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soames-26">[26]</a></sup></p>
<p>A few of the most important and active topics and subtopics of analytic philosophy are summarized by the following sections.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_mind_and_cognitive_science">Philosophy of mind and cognitive science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind and cognitive science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div>
<p>Motivated by the logical positivists' interest in verificationism, <a href="/wiki/Logical_behaviorism" title="Logical behaviorism">logical behaviorism</a> was the most prominent theory of mind of analytic philosophy for the first half of the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> Behaviorists tended to opine either that statements about the mind were equivalent to <i>statements about</i> behavior and dispositions to behave in particular ways or that mental states were directly equivalent to behavior and dispositions to behave. Behaviorism later became much less popular, in favor of <a href="/wiki/Identity_theory_of_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity theory of mind">type physicalism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a>, theories that identified mental states with brain states. During this period, topics of the philosophy of mind were often related strongly to topics of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">innateness</a>. Finally, analytic philosophy has featured a certain number of philosophers who were <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualists</a>, and recently forms of property dualism have had a resurgence, with <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a> as the most prominent representative.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> suggests that the obsession with the philosophy of language of the last century has been superseded by an emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> in which functionalism is currently the dominant theory. In recent years, a central focus for research in the philosophy of mind has been <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>. And while there is a general consensus for the global neuronal workspace model of consciousness,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> there are many opinions as to the specifics. The best known theories are <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heterophenomenology" title="Heterophenomenology">heterophenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">representationalism</a>, and the higher-order theories of either <a href="/wiki/David_M._Rosenthal_(philosopher)" title="David M. Rosenthal (philosopher)">David M. Rosenthal</a>—who advocates a higher-order thought (HOT) model—- or <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lycan" title="William Lycan">William Lycan</a>—who advocate a higher-order perception (HOP) model. An alternative higher-order theory, the higher-order global states (HOGS) model, is offered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_van_Gulick&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert van Gulick (page does not exist)">Robert van Gulick</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethics_in_analytic_philosophy">Ethics in analytic philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Ethics in analytic philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>
<p>Philosophers working with the analytic tradition have gradually come to distinguish three major types of moral philosophy.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a> the function of which is investigation of moral terms and concepts.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a> the function of which is examination and production of normative ethical judgments.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a> the function of which is investigation of how existing normative principles should be applied to difficult or borderline cases, often cases created by new technology or new scientific knowledge.</li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Normative_ethics">Normative ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Normative ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The first half of the twentieth century was marked by skepticism toward, and neglect of, normative ethics. Related subjects, such as social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>, became only marginal topics of English-language philosophy during this period.</p>
<p>During this time, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> was the only non-skeptical type of ethics to remain popular. However, as the influence of logical positivism began to decrease mid-century, contemporary analytic philosophers began to have a renewed interest in ethics. <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a>'s 1958 <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a></i> sparked a revival of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Virtue_Ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtue Ethics">virtue ethical</a> approach and <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>'s 1971 <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> restored interest in <a href="/wiki/Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantian">Kantian</a> ethical philosophy. At present, contemporary normative ethics is dominated by three schools: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, virtue ethics, and <a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">deontology</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Meta-ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Twentieth-century meta-ethics has two origins. The first is G. E. Moore's investigation into the nature of ethical terms (e.g. good) in his <i>Principia Ethica</i> (1903), which identified the <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a>. Along with Hume's famous is/ought distinction, the naturalistic fallacy was a major topic of investigation for analytical philosophers.</p>
<p>The second is in logical positivism and its attitude that statements which are unverifiable are meaningless. Although that attitude was adopted originally as a means to promote scientific investigation by rejecting grand metaphysical systems, it had the side effect of making (ethical and aesthetic) value judgments (as well as religious statements and beliefs) meaningless. But since value judgments are of major importance in human life, it became incumbent on logical positivism to develop an explanation of the nature and meaning of value judgements. As a result, analytic philosophers avoided normative ethics, and instead began <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethical</a> investigations into the nature of moral terms, statements, and judgments.</p>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical positivist">logical positivists</a> opined that statements about <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">value</a>—- including all ethical and aesthetic judgments—- are <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">non-cognitive</a>; that is, they can not be objectively verified or falsified. Instead, the logical positivists adopted an <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">emotivist</a> theory, which was that value judgments expressed the attitude of the speaker. Saying, "Killing is wrong", they thought, was equivalent to saying, "Boo to murder", or saying the word "murder" with a particular tone of disapproval.</p>
<p>While non-cognitivism was generally accepted by analytic philosophers, emotivism had many deficiencies, and evolved into more sophisticated non-cognitivist theories such as the <a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">expressivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stevenson" title="Charles Stevenson">Charles Stevenson</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">universal prescriptivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a>, which was based on J. L. Austin's philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Speech_acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech acts">speech acts</a>.</p>
<p>These theories were not without their critics. <a href="/wiki/Phillipa_Foot" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillipa Foot">Phillipa Foot</a> contributed several essays attacking all these theories. <a href="/wiki/J._O._Urmson" title="J. O. Urmson">J. O. Urmson</a>'s article "On Grading" called the is/ought distinction into question.</p>
<p>As non-cognitivism, the is/ought distinction, and the naturalistic fallacy began to be called into question, analytic philosophers began to show a renewed interest in the traditional questions of moral philosophy. Perhaps most influential in this regard was <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>, whose monograph <i>Intention</i> was called by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> "the most important treatment of action since Aristotle", and is widely regarded as a masterpiece of moral psychology. A favorite student and friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, her 1958 article "Modern Moral Philosophy" introduced the term "<a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>" into the philosophical lexicon, declared the "is-ought" impasse to be unproductive, and resulted in a revival of virtue ethics.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Applied_ethics">Applied ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Applied ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>A significant feature of analytic philosophy since approximately 1970 has been the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>—- an interest in the application of moral principles to specific practical issues.</p>
<p>Topics of special interest for applied ethics include <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental issues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a>, and the many challenges created by advancing <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">medical science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytic_philosophy_of_religion">Analytic philosophy of religion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Analytic philosophy of religion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div>
<p>In <i>Analytic Philosophy of Religion</i>, Harris noted that</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>analytic philosophy has been a very heterogeneous 'movement'.... some forms of analytic philosophy have proven very sympathetic to the philosophy of religion and have actually provided a philosophical mechanism for responding to other more radical and hostile forms of analytic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-harris2001_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harris2001-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:3</sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>As with the study of ethics, early analytic philosophy tended to avoid the study of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, largely dismissing (as per the logical positivists) the subject as part of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> and therefore meaningless.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> The demise of logical positivism renewed interest in philosophy of religion, prompting philosophers like <a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">John Mackie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a> not only to introduce new problems, but to re-study classical topics such as the nature of <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a>, theistic arguments, the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>, (see <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>) the rationality of belief in <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, concepts of the nature of God, and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
<p>Plantinga, Mackie and Flew debated the logical validity of the <i>free will defense</i> as a way to solve the problem of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Alston, grappling with the consequences of analytic <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, worked on the nature of religious language. Adams worked on the relationship of faith and morality.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> Analytic epistemology and metaphysics has formed the basis for a number of philosophically-sophisticated theistic arguments, like those of the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">reformed epistemologists</a> like Plantinga.</p>
<p>Analytic philosophy of religion has also been preoccupied with Wittgenstein, as well as his interpretation of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>'s philosophy of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Using first-hand remarks (which was later published in <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>, <i>Culture and Value</i>, and other works), philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Winch" title="Peter Winch">Peter Winch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a> developed what has come to be known as <i>contemplative philosophy</i>, a Wittgensteinian school of thought rooted in the "Swansea tradition," and which includes Wittgensteinians such as <a href="/wiki/Rush_Rhees" title="Rush Rhees">Rush Rhees</a>, Peter Winch, and <a href="/wiki/D._Z._Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="D. Z. Phillips">D. Z. Phillips</a>, among others. The name "contemplative philosophy" was first coined by D. Z. Phillips in <i>Philosophy's Cool Place</i>, which rests on an interpretation of a passage from Wittgenstein's "Culture and Value."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> This interpretation was first labeled, "Wittgensteinian Fideism," by Kai Nielsen but those who consider themselves Wittgensteinians in the Swansea tradition have relentlessly and repeatedly rejected this construal as a caricature of Wittgenstein's considered position; this is especially true of D. Z. Phillips.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Responding to this interpretation, <a href="/wiki/Kai_Nielsen_(philosopher)" title="Kai Nielsen (philosopher)">Kai Nielsen</a> and D. Z. Phillips became two of the most prominent philosophers on Wittgenstein's philosophy of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Political philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Liberalism">Liberalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Liberalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Current analytic political philosophy owes much to <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>, who in a series of papers from the 1950s onward (most notably "Two Concepts of Rules" and "Justice as Fairness") and his 1971 book <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i>, produced a sophisticated defence of a generally liberal egalitarian account of distributive justice. This was followed soon by Rawls's colleague <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a></i>, a defence of <a href="/wiki/Free-market" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market">free-market</a> <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> also had a lasting influence on both analytic political philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> with his lecture the <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Concepts_of_Liberty" title="Two Concepts of Liberty">Two Concepts of Liberty</a></i>.</p>
<p>During recent decades there have also been several critiques of liberalism, including the <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> critiques of <a href="/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon" title="Catharine MacKinnon">Catharine MacKinnon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Dworkin" title="Andrea Dworkin">Andrea Dworkin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">communitarian</a> critiques of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> (though it should be noted that neither one endorses the term), and the <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalist</a> critiques of <a href="/wiki/Amy_Gutmann" title="Amy Gutmann">Amy Gutmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>. Although not an analytic philosopher, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> is another important—- if controversial—- author of contemporary analytic political philosophy, whose social theory is a blend of social science, Marxism, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">neo-Kantianism</a>, and American <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Consequentialist_libertarianism" title="Consequentialist libertarianism">Consequentialist libertarianism</a> also derives from the analytic tradition.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytical_Marxism">Analytical Marxism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Analytical Marxism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Another development of political philosophy has been the emergence of a school known as <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a>. Members of this school seek to apply the techniques of analytic philosophy, along with techniques of modern social science such as <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a> to the elucidation of the theories of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and his successors. The best-known member of this school is <a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="G. A. Cohen">G. A. Cohen</a>, whose 1978 work, <i><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx%27s_Theory_of_History:_A_Defence" title="Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence">Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence</a></i>, is generally considered as representing the genesis of this school. In that book, Cohen applied the tools of logical and linguistic analysis to the elucidation and defense of Marx's materialist conception of history. Other prominent Analytical Marxists include the economist <a href="/wiki/John_Roemer" title="John Roemer">John Roemer</a>, the social scientist <a href="/wiki/Jon_Elster" title="Jon Elster">Jon Elster</a>, and the sociologist <a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Erik Olin Wright</a>. The work of these later philosophers have furthered Cohen's work by bringing to bear modern social science methods, such as rational choice theory, to supplement Cohen's use of analytic philosophical techniques in the interpretation of Marxian theory.</p>
<p>Cohen himself would later engage directly with Rawlsian political philosophy to advance a <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> theory of justice that stands in contrast to both traditional Marxism and the theories advanced by Rawls and Nozick. In particular, he indicates Marx's principle of <a href="/wiki/From_each_according_to_his_ability,_to_each_according_to_his_need" class="mw-redirect" title="From each according to his ability, to each according to his need">from each according to his ability, to each according to his need</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Communitarianism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Communitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Communitarian">Communitarians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> advance a critique of Liberalism that uses analytic techniques to isolate the main assumptions of Liberal individualists, such as Rawls, and then challenges these assumptions. In particular, Communitarians challenge the Liberal assumption that the individual can be considered as fully autonomous from the community in which he lives and is brought up. Instead, they argue for a conception of the individual that emphasizes the role that the community plays in forming his or her values, thought processes and opinions.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analytic_metaphysics">Analytic metaphysics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Analytic metaphysics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div>
<p>One striking difference with respect to early analytic philosophy was the revival of metaphysical theorizing during the second half of the twentieth century. Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Kellogg Lewis</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Armstrong</a> developed elaborate theories on a range of topics such as universals, causation, possibility and necessity, and abstract objects.</p>
<p>Among the developments that resulted in the revival of metaphysical theorizing were <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a>'s attack on the <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analytic-synthetic distinction</a>, which was generally considered to weaken <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a>'s distinction between existence questions internal to a framework and those external to it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> Important also for the revival of metaphysics was the further development of <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>, including the work of <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a>, who argued in <i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> and elsewhere for the existence of <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essences</a> and the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic#Alethic_logic" title="Modal logic">necessary</a>, <a href="/wiki/A_posteriori" class="mw-redirect" title="A posteriori">a posteriori</a> truths.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></p>
<p>Metaphysics remains a fertile topic of research, having recovered from the attacks of <a href="/wiki/A.J._Ayer" class="mw-redirect" title="A.J. Ayer">A.J. Ayer</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivists</a>. And though many discussions are continuations of old ones, inherited from previous decades and centuries, the debate remains active. The philosophy of fiction, the problem of empty names, and the debate over existence's status as a property have all become major concerns, while perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of time">philosophy of time</a> have been revived.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-inwagenetall1998_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inwagenetall1998-47">[47]</a></sup></p>
<p>Science has also had an increasingly significant role in metaphysics. The theory of special relativity has had a profound effect on the philosophy of time, and quantum physics is routinely discussed in the free will debate.<sup id="cite_ref-inwagenetall1998_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inwagenetall1998-47">[47]</a></sup> The weight given to scientific evidence is largely due to widespread commitments among philosophers to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_language">Philosophy of language</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy of language">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div>
<p>Philosophy of language is a topic that has decreased during the last four decades, as evidenced by the fact that few major authors of contemporary philosophy treat it as a primary research topic. Indeed, while the debate remains fierce, it is still strongly influenced by those authors from the first half of the century: <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">J.L. Austin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W.V.O. Quine</a>.</p>
<p>In Kripke's publication <i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i>, he argued influentially that flaws in common theories of proper names are indicative of larger misunderstandings of the metaphysics of necessity and possibility. By wedding the techniques of modal logic to a causal theory of reference, Kripke was widely regarded as reviving theories of essence and identity as respectable topics of philosophical discussion.</p>
<p>Another influential philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Tich%C3%BD" title="Pavel Tichý">Pavel Tichý</a> intitiated Transparent Intensional Logic, an original theory of the logical analysis of natural languages – the theory is devoted to the problem of saying exactly what it is that we learn, know and can communicate when we come to understand what a sentence means.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
<p>Reacting against both the verificationism of the logical positivists as well as the critiques of the philosopher of science <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, who had suggested the <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> criterion on which to judge the demarcation between science and non-science, discussions of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> during the last forty years were dominated by <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">social constructivist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_relativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive relativism">cognitive relativist</a> theories of science. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Thomas Samuel Kuhn</a> with his formulation of <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> with his <a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">epistemological anarchism</a> are significant for these discussions.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">philosophy of biology</a> has also undergone considerable growth, particularly due to the considerable debate in recent years over the nature of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Daniel Dennett and his 1995 book <i><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_Dangerous_Idea" title="Darwin's Dangerous Idea">Darwin's Dangerous Idea</a></i>, which defends <a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a>, stand at the foreground of this debate.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Epistemology">Epistemology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Epistemology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div>
<p>Owing largely to <a href="/wiki/Gettier" class="mw-redirect" title="Gettier">Gettier</a>'s 1963 paper "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", epistemology resurged as a topic of analytic philosophy during the last 50 years. A large portion of current epistemological research is intended to resolve the problems that Gettier's examples presented to the traditional justified true belief model of knowledge, including developing <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">theories of justification</a> in order to deal with Gettier's examples, or giving alternatives to the justified true belief model. Other and related topics of contemporary research include debates between <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">internalism and externalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> basic knowledge, the nature of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, the value of knowledge, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemic_luck&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Epistemic luck (page does not exist)">epistemic luck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">virtue epistemology</a>, the role of <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (philosophy)">intuitions</a> in justification, and treating knowledge as a primitive concept.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Aesthetics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div>
<p>As a result of attacks on the traditional aesthetic notions of beauty and sublimity from <a href="/wiki/Post-modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modern">post-modern</a> thinkers, analytic philosophers were slow to consider art and aesthetic judgment. <a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> addressed these problems in an analytic style during the 1950s and 60s. Since Goodman, aesthetics as a discipline for analytic philosophers has flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> Rigorous efforts to pursue analyses of traditional aesthetic concepts were performed by <a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a> during the 1970s and 80s, resulting in new analytic theories of love,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> sublimity,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> and beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Topics_of_analytic_philosophy">Topics of analytic philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Topics of analytic philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></b> For epistemology, the idea has been advanced both as a theory of knowledge and of justified belief. As a theory of knowledge, coherentism can be roughly stated as follows: "Someone's belief is true if and only if it is coherent with all or most of his or her other beliefs." As a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">theory of justification</a>, coherentism can be roughly stated: "Someone's belief is justified if and only if it is coherent with all or most of his or her other beliefs."</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a></b> For metaphysics, it is the idea that free will (and therefore moral responsibility) and determinism are logically incompatible categories. This could include believing in determinism and therefore that free will is an illusion (hard determinism) or that free will exists and therefore determinism is false (<a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">libertarianism</a>).</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></b> For epistemology, contextualism is the treatment of the word 'knows' as context-sensitive. Context-sensitive expressions are ones that "express different propositions relative to different contexts of use."</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Deflationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Deflationism">Deflationism</a></b> For epistemology, the idea that assertions that predicate truth of a statement do not attribute a property called truth to such a statement. However, there are many competing deflationist theories: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Redundancy_theory&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Redundancy theory (page does not exist)">redundancy theory</a>, <b>performative theory</b>, <b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semantic_theory&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Semantic theory (page does not exist)">semantic theory</a></b>, <b>disquotationalism</b>, <b>prosententialism</b>, and <b>minimalism</b>.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Direct_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct realism">Direct realism</a></b> For epistemology, the idea that the world is pretty much as common sense would have it. Furthermore, when we look at and touch things we see and feel those things directly, and so perceive them as they really are. In contrast, indirect or representative realism claims that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realism is also known by the names, <b>naïve realism</b> or <b>common sense realism</b>.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></b> For the philosophy of mind, epiphenomenalism is an idea according to which some or all mental states are mere epiphenomena (side-effects or by-products) of physical states of the world.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Externalism" title="Externalism">Externalism</a></b> Contrasted with internalism, externalism names several distinct views across several branches of philosophy. For example, in moral philosophy a motivational externalist claims that there is no necessary connection between moral judgments and moral motives. In epistemology, a justification externalist claims that there are factors other than those which are internal to the believer which can affect the justificatory status of a belief. In philosophy of mind, externalism is the view that the contents of at least some of one's mental states are dependent in part on their relationship to the external world or one's environment.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></b> For philosophy of mind, functionalism is a philosophical position holding that mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their functional role — that is, their causal relations to other mental states, sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs. Since mental states are identified by a functional role, they are said to be multiply realizable; in other words, they are able to be manifested in various systems, even perhaps computers, so long as the system performs the appropriate functions.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></b> For metaphysics, it is the idea that free will and determinism are compatible ideas and that it is possible to believe both without being logically inconsistent. Compatibilism is also known by the name, <b>soft determinism</b>.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Internalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Internalism">Internalism</a></b> Contrasted with externalism, internalism names several distinct views across several branches of philosophy. For example, in moral philosophy a motivational internalist claims that moral judgments are intrinsically motivating. In epistemology, an internalism about justification claims that everything necessary to provide justification for a belief must be immediately available in an agent's conscious. In philosophy of mind, internalism is the view that the contents of all of one's mental states are independent of their relationship to the external world or one's environment.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></b> The theory that the world consists of ultimate logical "facts" (or "atoms") that cannot be broken down any further.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></b> Logical positivism (or logical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is indispensable for knowledge of the world, with a version of rationalism, the idea that our knowledge includes a component that is not derived from observation.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Moral particularism</a></b> Moral particularism is the idea that there are not any moral principles and that moral judgement can be found only as one decides particular cases, either real or imagined.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></b> Naturalism is the idea that the scientific method (hypothesize, predict, test, repeat) is the only effective way to investigate reality. Defended most notably by <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> with his work to reduce <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> to <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Neopragmatism</a></b> Neopragmatism, sometimes called <i>linguistic pragmatism</i>, is a recent (since the 1960s) philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. It has been associated with a variety of thinkers, among them Richard Rorty, Hilary Putnam, W.V.O. Quine, Donald Davidson, and Stanley Fish though none of these people have called themselves "neopragmatists".</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></b> For metaethics, non-cognitivism is the idea that ethical sentences do not express propositions and thus cannot be true or false. Examples of this idea are <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">emotivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">quasi-realism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">expressivism</a>.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></b> Ordinary language philosophy is a philosophical school that approached traditional philosophical problems as rooted in misunderstandings philosophers develop by forgetting what words actually mean in a language.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></b> For philosophy of mind and metaphysics, physicalism is the idea that everything which exists is no more extensive than its physical properties; that is, that there are no kinds of things other than physical things. The term was invented by Otto Neurath in a series of early 20th century essays on the subject.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></b> For the philosophy of mind, the idea that, although the world is constituted of just one kind of substance—the physical kind—there exist two distinct kinds of properties: physical properties and mental properties.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></b> For <a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">metaphilosophy</a>, the idea that the role of philosophy is therapeutic or remedial. Quietist philosophers believe that philosophy has no positive theses to contribute, but rather that its value is in defusing confusions in the linguistic and conceptual frameworks of other subjects.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></b> For epistemology, the idea has been advanced both as a theory of knowledge and of justified belief. As a theory of knowledge, reliabilism can be roughly stated as follows: "One knows that p (p stands for any proposition—e.g., that the sky is blue) if and only if p is true, one believes that p is true, and one has arrived at the belief that p through some reliable process." As a theory of justified belief, reliabilism can be formulated roughly as follows: "One has a justified belief that p if, and only if, the belief is the result of a reliable process."</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> and Scientific antirealism</b> For the philosophy of science, the idea that the entities described by scientific theories (e.g., quarks, mesons, double-helix molecules) really exist and the opposing idea that they do not exist but are rather something like a useful fiction, social construction, etc. See also <a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Entity_realism" title="Entity realism">Entity realism</a>.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></b> For the philosophy of mind, the idea that there exist two kinds of substance: physical and non-physical (the mind), and subsequently also two kinds of properties which adhere in those respective substances.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></b> Verificationism is the idea that a statement or question only has meaning if there is some way to determine if the statement is true, or what the answer to the question is.</p>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></b> The contemporary revival of virtue theory is frequently traced to the philosopher G. E. M. Anscombe's 1958 essay, Modern Moral Philosophy and to Philippa Foot, who published a collection of essays in 1978 entitled Virtues and Vices.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Searle03P1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Searle03P1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle03P1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Without exception, the best philosophy departments in the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy, and among the leading philosophers in the United States, all but a tiny handful would be classified as analytic philosophers. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that are not in the analytic tradition—- such as phenomenology, classical pragmatism, existentialism, or Marxism—- feel it necessary to define their position in relation to analytic philosophy." <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> (2003) <i>Contemporary Philosophy in the United States</i> in N. Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed., (Blackwell, 2003), p. 1.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Avrum Stroll, <i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 5: "[I]t is difficult to give a precise definition of 'analytic philosophy' since it is not so much a specific doctrine as a loose concatenation of approaches to problems." Also, see Stroll (2000), p. 7: "I think Sluga is right in saying 'it may be hopeless to try to determine the essence of analytic philosophy.' Nearly every proposed definition has been challenged by some scholar. [...] [W]e are dealing with a family resemblance concept."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Hans-Johann_Glock" title="Hans-Johann Glock">Hans-Johann Glock</a>, <i>What Is Analytic Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 205: "The answer to the title question, then, is that analytic philosophy is a tradition held together <i>both</i> by ties of mutual influence <i>and</i> by family resemblances."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-LeiterWeb-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (2006) webpage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/analytic.asp"><i>"Analytic" and "Continental" Philosophy</i></a>. Quote on the definition: "'Analytic' philosophy today names a style of doing philosophy, not a philosophical program or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic; and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more closely with the sciences and mathematics, than with the humanities."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Glock, H. J. (2004). "Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher?". <i>Metaphilosophy</i> <b>35</b> (4): 419–444. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9973.2004.00329.x">10.1111/j.1467-9973.2004.00329.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Was+Wittgenstein+an+Analytic+Philosopher%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+J.&amp;rft.aulast=Glock&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9973.2004.00329.x&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.jtitle=Metaphilosophy&amp;rft.pages=419-444&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=35" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin McGinn, <i>The Making of a Philosopher: My Journey through Twentieth-Century Philosophy</i> (HarperCollins, 2002), p. xi.: "analytical philosophy [is] too narrow a label, since [it] is not generally a matter of taking a word or concept and analyzing it (whatever exactly thatthat might be). [...] This tradition emphasizes clarity, rigor, argument, theory, truth. It is not a tradition that aims primarily for inspiration or consolation or ideology. Nor is it particularly concerned with 'philosophy of life,' though parts of it are. This kind of philosophy is more like science than religion, more like mathematics than poetry – though it is neither science nor mathematics."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Aristotle Metaphysics (Book II 993a), Kenny (1973) p. 230.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Quine's papers "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" and "Epistemology Naturalized".</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.P. Martinich, "Introduction," in Martinich &amp; D. Sosa (eds.), <i>A Companion to Analytic Philosophy</i> (Blackwell, 2001), p. 1: "To use a general name for the kind of analytic philosophy practiced during the first half of the twentieth century, [...] 'conceptual analysis' aims at breaking down complex concepts into their simpler components."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wittgenstein, op. cit., 4.111</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scott Soames, <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century</i> Vol. 1 (Princeton UP, 2003), p. xv: "There is, I think, a widespread presumption within the tradition that it is often possible to make philosophical progress by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range of philosophical issues while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance. What distinguishes twentieth-century analytical philosophy from at least some philosophy in other traditions, or at other times, is not a categorical rejection of philosophical systems, but rather the acceptance of a wealth of smaller, more thorough and more rigorous, investigations that need not be tied to any overarching philosophical view." See also, e.g., "Philosophical Analysis" (catalogued under "Analysis, Philosophical") in <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> , Vol. 1 (Macmillan, 1967), <i>esp.</i> sections on "Bertrand Russell" at p. 97<i>ff</i>, "G.E. Moore" at p. 100<i>ff</i>, and "Logical Positivism" at p. 102<i>ff</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., the works of <a href="/wiki/G.E._Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="G.E. Moore">G.E. Moore</a> and <a href="/wiki/J.L._Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Austin">J.L. Austin</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A History of Western Philosophy</i> (Simon &amp; Schuster, 1945), p. 834.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.C. Grayling (ed.), <i>Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject</i> (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 2: "Analytic philosophy is mainly associated with the contemporary English-speaking world, but it is by no means the only important philosophical tradition. In this volume two other immensely rich and important such traditions are introduced: Indian philosophy, and philosophical thought in Europe from the time of Hegel." L.J. Cohen, <i>The Dialogue of Reason: An Analysis of Analytical Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 5: "So, despite a few overlaps, analytical philosophy is not difficult to distinguish broadly [...] from other modern movements, like phenomenology, say, or existentialism, or from the large amount of philosophizing that has also gone on in the present century within frameworks deriving from other influential thinkers like Aquinas, Hegel, or Marx." H.-J. Glock, <i>What Is Analytic Philosophy?</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 86: "Most non-analytic philosophers of the twentieth century do not belong to continental philosophy."</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PenguinDicP22-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mautner, Thomas (editor) (2005) <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, entry for 'Analytic philosophy<i>, pp. 22–3</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Analytic philosophy opposed right from its beginning English neo-Hegelianism of Bradley's sort and similar ones. It did not only criticize the latter's denial of the existence of an external world (anyway an unjust criticism), but also the bombastic, obscure style of Hegel's writings." <cite class="citation journal">Jonkers, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arsdisputandi.org/publish/articles/000129/article.pdf">"Perspectives on Twentieth Century Philosophy:A Reply to Tom Rockmore"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_Disputandi" title="Ars Disputandi">Ars Disputandi</a></i> <b>3</b>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1566-5399">1566-5399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Perspectives+on+Twentieth+Century+Philosophy%3AA+Reply+to+Tom+Rockmore&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft.aulast=Jonkers&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arsdisputandi.org%2Fpublish%2Farticles%2F000129%2Farticle.pdf&amp;rft.issn=1566-5399&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Disputandi&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=3" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baillie, James, "Introduction to Bertrand Russell" in <i>Contemporary Analytic Philosophy, Second Edition</i> (Prentice Hall, 1997), p. 25.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Willard, Dallas. "Husserl on a Logic that Failed". <i>Philosophical Review</i> <b>89</b> (1): 52–53. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2184863">10.2307/2184863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Husserl+on+a+Logic+that+Failed&amp;rft.au=Willard%2C+Dallas&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2184863&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Review&amp;rft.pages=52-53&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=89" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Russell, Bertrand (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/anglica/Chronology/20thC/Russell/rus_deno.html">"On Denoting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i> <b>14</b>: 473–93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=On+Denoting&amp;rft.aufirst=Bertrand&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.date=1905&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fh-augsburg.de%2F~harsch%2Fanglica%2FChronology%2F20thC%2FRussell%2Frus_deno.html&amp;rft.jtitle=Mind&amp;rft.pages=473-93&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=14" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Carnap, R. (1928). <i>The Logical Structure of the World</i>. Felix Meiner Verlag. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8126-9523-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8126-9523-2">0-8126-9523-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/66013604">66013604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Carnap%2C+R.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Logical+Structure+of+the+World&amp;rft.date=1928&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F66013604&amp;rft.isbn=0-8126-9523-2&amp;rft.pub=Felix+Meiner+Verlag&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Popper, Karl R. (2002). <i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9">0-415-27844-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Popper%2C+Karl+R.&amp;rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-27844-9&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Important amongst these were Wittgenstein and Carnap. Popper might also be included, since despite his rejection of the term his method is similar to the analytic tradition.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/analytic.htm">Analytic Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/A.P._Martinich" class="mw-redirect" title="A.P. Martinich">A.P. Martinich</a>, ed. (2001). <i>A companion to analytic philosophy</i>. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp.&#160;1–5. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21415-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21415-1">0-631-21415-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=A+companion+to+analytic+philosophy&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-631-21415-1&amp;rft.pages=1-5&amp;rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hales, Steven D. (2002). <i>Analytic philosophy&#160;: classic readings</i>. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. pp.&#160;1–10. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-51277-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-51277-1">0-534-51277-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven+D.&amp;rft.aulast=Hales&amp;rft.btitle=Analytic+philosophy+%3A+classic+readings&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-534-51277-1&amp;rft.pages=1-10&amp;rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&amp;rft.pub=Wadsworth%2FThomson+Learning&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Soames-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soames_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Soames, Scott (2003). <i>The dawn of analysis</i> (2nd print., 1st paperb. print. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. pp.&#160;xiii–xvii. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11573-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-11573-7">0-691-11573-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=Scott&amp;rft.aulast=Soames&amp;rft.btitle=The+dawn+of+analysis&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.edition=2nd+print.%2C+1st+paperb.+print.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=0-691-11573-7&amp;rft.pages=xiii-xvii&amp;rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+Univ.+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graham, George, "Behaviorism", <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/behaviorism/">[1]</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism">"Dualism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Dualism&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdualism&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Postrel and Feser, February 2000, <i>Reality Principles: An Interview with John R. Searle</i> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.reason.com/news/show/27599.html">http://www.reason.com/news/show/27599.html</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Dennett, D. (2001). "Are we explaining consciousness yet?". <i>Cognition</i> <b>79</b> (1–2): 221–237. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-0277%2800%2900130-X">10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00130-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11164029">11164029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Are+we+explaining+consciousness+yet%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.aulast=Dennett&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0010-0277%2800%2900130-X&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11164029&amp;rft.issue=1%932&amp;rft.jtitle=Cognition&amp;rft.pages=221-237&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volume=79" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For summaries and some criticism of the different higher-order theories, see Van Gulick, Robert (2006) "Mirror Mirror—Is That All?" In Kriegel &amp; Williford (eds.), <i>Self-Representational Approaches to Consciousness</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. The final draft is also available here <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://web.syr.edu/~rnvangul/mirror-mirror.final.pdf">[2]</a>. For Van Gulick's own view, see Van Gulick, Robert. "Higher-Order Global States HOGS: An Alternative Higher-Order Model of Consciousness." In Gennaro, R.J., (ed.) <i>Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness: An Anthology.</i> Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brennan, Andrew and Yeuk-Sze Lo (2002). "Environmental Ethics" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/#2">§2</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gruen, Lori (2003). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/">The Moral Status of Animals</a>," in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Hursthouse, Rosalind (2003). "Virtue Ethics" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/#3">§3</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> and Donchin, Anne (2004). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-bioethics/">Feminist Bioethics</a>" in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-harris2001-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harris2001_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Harris, James Franklin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=Rx2Qf9ieFKYC"><i>Analytic philosophy of religion</i></a>. Dordrecht: Kluwer. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0530-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0530-X">1-4020-0530-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.aufirst=James+Franklin&amp;rft.aulast=Harris&amp;rft.btitle=Analytic+philosophy+of+religion&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26id%3DRx2Qf9ieFKYC&amp;rft.isbn=1-4020-0530-X&amp;rft.place=Dordrecht&amp;rft.pub=Kluwer&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> (432 pages) (volume 3 of Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, ISSN 1568-1556)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(a notable exception is the series of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foster_(philosopher)" title="Michael Foster (philosopher)">Michael B. Forest</a>'s 1934–36 <a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)"><i>Mind</i></a> articles involving the Christian doctrine of creation and the rise of modern science).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peterson, Michael et al. (2003). <i>Reason and Religious Belief</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie, John L. (1982). <i>The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams, Robert M. (1987). <i>The Virtue of Faith And Other Essays in Philosophical Theology</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creegan, Charles. (1989). <i>Wittgenstein and Kierkegaard: Religion, Individuality and Philosophical Method</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, D. Z. (1999). <i>Philosophy's Cool Place.</i> Cornell University Press. The quote is from Wittgenstein's <i>Culture and Value</i> (2e): "My ideal is a certain coolness. A temple providing a setting for the passions without meddling with them.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fideism">"Fideism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Fideism&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffideism&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nielsen, Kai and D.Z. Phillips. (2005). <i>Wittgensteinian Fideism?</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Yablo and A. Gallois, <i>Does Ontology Rest on a Mistake?</i>, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes, Vol. 72, (1998), pp.&#160;229–261+263-283 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mit.edu/%7Eyablo/om.pdf">first part</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dean_Zimmerman" title="Dean Zimmerman">Zimmerman, Dean W.</a>, "Prologue" in <i>Oxford Studies in Metaphysics, Volume 1</i> (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. xix.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Everett, Anthony and Thomas Hofweber (eds.) (2000), <i>Empty Names, Fiction and the Puzzles of Non-Existence.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-inwagenetall1998-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inwagenetall1998_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inwagenetall1998_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Inwagen, Peter, and Dean Zimmerman (eds.) (1998), <i>Metaphysics: The Big Questions.</i></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glock 2008, p. 47.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hull, David L. and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a>, "Preface" in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. xix &amp; xx.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lennox, James G., "Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism" in Sakar and Plutynski (eds.), <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 2008), p. 89.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bonjour, Laurence, "Recent Work on the Internalism—Externalism Controversy" in Dancy, Sosa, and Steup (eds.), <i>A Companion to Epistemology, Second Edition</i> (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 33.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a>, <i>Feeling and Form: A Theory of Art</i> (1953)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a>, <i>Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols</i>. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1976. Based on his 1960–61 John Locke lectures.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kivy, Peter, "Introduction: Aesthetics Today" in <i>The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 4.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a>, <i>Love and Beauty.</i> Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a> "How Is a Theory of the Sublime Possible?" <i>The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism</i>, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn, 1993), pp.&#160;541–550</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a>, <i>A New Theory of Beauty.</i> Princeton Essays on the Arts, 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Aristotle, <i>Metaphysics</i></li>
<li>Geach, P., <i>Mental Acts</i>, London 1957</li>
<li>Kenny, A.J.P., <i>Wittgenstein</i>, London 1973.</li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Aaron Preston. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu//a/analytic.htm">"Analytic philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Analytic+philosophy&amp;rft.au=Aaron+Preston&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2F%2Fa%2Fanalytic.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li>Wittgenstein, <i>Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</i></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">London Philosophy Study Guide</a> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/FRW.htm">Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li>Dummett, Michael. <i>The Origins of Analytical Philosophy</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.</li>
<li>Hirschberger, Johannes. <i>A Short History of Western Philosophy</i>, ed. Clare Hay. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lutterworth.com/lp/titles/shwphil.htm">Short History of Western Philosophy, A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780718830922" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7188-3092-2</a></li>
<li>Hylton, Peter. <i>Russell, Idealism, and the Emergence of Analytic Philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.</li>
<li>Soames, Scott. <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 1, The Dawn of Analysis</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.</li>
<li>Passmore, John. <i>A Hundred Years of Philosophy</i>, revised ed. New York: Basic Books, 1966.</li>
<li>Weitz, Morris, ed. <i>Twentieth Century Philosophy: The Analytic Tradition</i>. New York: Free Press, 1966.</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/analytic">"Analytic philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Analytic+philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fanalytic&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/s6">"Conceptions of Analysis in Analytic Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=Conceptions+of+Analysis+in+Analytic+Philosophy&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fanalysis%2Fs6&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Analytic_Philosophy/">Analytic philosophy</a> at <a href="/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div>
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<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_(Philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology (Philosophy)">Cosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a></span></th>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="C?rv?ka">C?rv?ka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="European philosophy">European</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Ny?ya">Navya-Ny?ya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism#Persian_school_of_Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Persian Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Ilm al-Kalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideal</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Material</a></span></th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical realism">Classical realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><strong class="selflink">Analytic</strong></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positions</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li>Philosophy by region</li>
<li>Philosophy-related lists</li>
<li>Miscellaneous</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Native America</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish philosophy">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene philosophy">Slovene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li>
</ul>
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</td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage (philosophy)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th>
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<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Herder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Noir%C3%A9" title="Ludwig Noiré">Ludwig Noiré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Fritz Mauthner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Paul Ricœur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Benjamin Lee Whorf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Bergmann" title="Gustav Bergmann">Gustav Bergmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Hawthorne" title="John Hawthorne">John Hawthorne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Neale" title="Stephen Neale">Stephen Neale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Paul Watzlawick</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_theory_of_meaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast theory of meaning">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivist theory of names</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verification_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Verification theory">Verification theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" title="Meaning (linguistics)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></b></li>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related articles</th>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Analytic philosophy</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
</ul>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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</table>
</td>
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</table>
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<div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</abbr></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</abbr></a></li>
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<div style="font-size:114%"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a>&#160;/ <strong class="selflink">Analytic philosophy</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (Empirio-criticism)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Rankean historical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Russian positivism (Empiriomonism)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" title="Theory of justification">Justificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />
in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry (1830s)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Heisenberg uncertainty principle (1927)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">Epistemological idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism#Anthropology" title="Holism">Holism in anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><span style="float:left;width:6em">&#160;</span>
<div style="font-size:114%">Positivist-related debate</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1890s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit"><i>Methodenstreit</i> (economics)</a></li>
<li>1909–1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1960s&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></li>
<li>1980s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a></li>
<li>1990s&#160;<a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science Wars</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1830&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1848&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1869&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i></li>
<li>1879&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Idealism and Positivism</a></i></li>
<li>1886&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i></li>
<li>1927&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i></li>
<li>1959&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i></li>
<li>2001&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>1909&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i></li>
<li>1923&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i></li>
<li>1934&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i></li>
<li>1936&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i></li>
<li>1942&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i></li>
<li>1951&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i></li>
<li>1960&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i></li>
<li>1962&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i></li>
<li>1963&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i></li>
<li>1964&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i></li>
<li>1968&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas#Major_works" title="Jürgen Habermas">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i></li>
<li>1978&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson#Freelance_polemicist" title="E. P. Thompson">The Poverty of Theory</a></i></li>
<li>1980&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">The Scientific Image</a></i></li>
<li>1986&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/McCloskey_critique" title="McCloskey critique">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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</tr>
<tr>
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<div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85004780">sh85004780</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4001869-6">4001869-6</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561031">00561031</a></span></span></li>
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